Price Fifty Cents. 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 



STUDIES 



-IN- 



Practical Agriculture. 

PAPERS REPRINTED FROM THE AGRICUL TURAL 

EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS NO IV 

OUT OF PRINT. 




PUBLISHED BY CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 

FOR SALE BY ANDRUS & CHURCH, 

ITHACA, N. Y. 

l887. 



Cornell University. 

The number of Courses of Instruction given the present 
year at Cornell University exceeds four hundred. 

The Technical Courses lead to degrees in Agriculture, Archi- 
tecture, Chemistry, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engi- 
neering, and Mechanical Engineering. 

The Non-Technical Courses lead to degrees in Arts, in Phil- 
osophy, in Science, and in Letters. In all these Courses 
the work is prescribed during the Freshman year, and 
for the most part during the Sophomore year ; in the 
Junior year, with the exception of two hours in English 
Composition, and in the Senior year, without exception,, 
the work is elective. 

The University makes exclusive use of ten Buildings, twelve 
Laboratories, and ten Museums. Its Library now con- 
sists of more than 62 ? 000 volumes, and the list of Scien- 
tific -and Literary journals taken numbers more than 
four hundred. 

Eor advanced work with Seniors and Graduates, the Semi- 
nary methods are adopted. 

The Corps of Instruction consists of Seventy-eight Profes- 
sors, Lecturers, and Instructors. 

Thirty-six University Scholarships at $200 each, and Eight 
Fellowships of $400 each are given. 

Tuition to those holding State Scholarships, as well as to 
students in Agriculture, and to all Graduate students, 
is free ; to all others it is $75 a year. 

Examinations for Admission are held June 15th and Sep- 
tember 15th, 1887. 

For more detailed information see pages 3 and 4 of cover. 

For the University Register containing special information., 
address 

E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer, 

ITHACA, N. Y. 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

STUDI ES 

— IN — 

Practical Agriculture. 

PAPERS REPRINTED FROM THE AGRICUL RURAL 

EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS NOW 

OUT OF PRINT. 




J 1890 






PUBLISHED BY CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

FOR SALE BY ANDRUS & CHURCH, 

ITHACA, N. Y. 

1887. 



<=>* 



PREFACE 



The Agricultural Experiment Station at Cornell Univer- 
sity was established in 1879. Since that date, reports of 
experiments carried on at the Station have from time to 
time been published. Those reports, being out of print, are 
not now accessible to the public. The frequent requests 
that come to the University have led to the belief that a real 
service would be rendered to the cause of practical agricult- 
ure by a republication of some of the papers that seemed to 
be of most general and practical importance. By reason of 
this belief, the following papers are now offered to the larger 
agricultural public. 

C. K. ADAMS. 

Cornell University, Dec. 10, 1886. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE. 

I. Cost and value of stable manure 7 

Quantity and value of manure of milch cows 10 

II. Silage for young cattle 13 

III. Changes in the milk, with changes in the ration, 14 

IV. Productive effect of the same ration with differ- 

ent breeds of cows 16 

V. Gain of steers on a fattening ration 18 

VI. Effect of a maintenance ration 20 

VII. Field experiments with crops 23 

VIII. Self-fertilization of corn 26 

IX. Miscellaneous analyses of fertilizing material 28 

X. Experiments on various fertilizers on Indian corn, 29 
XI. The influence of the ration on the composition of 

the milk 35 

XII. Pleuro-pneumonia. , 43 

XIII. Field experiments with various crops 76 

XIV. Experiments in cattle feeding 95 

XV. The relative proportion of nutrients in the tops 

and butts of corn-stalks 106 

XVI. Malt sprouts compared with grain, and ensilage 

compared with dry feed for milch cows 107 



STUDIES 



IN 



PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 



EXPERIMENTS ON THE COST AND VALUE OF STABLE 
MANURE. 



By Prof. I. P. Roberts. 



(Analyses by Mr. F. E. Furry (aid Mr. A. M. Breed. 



I. The Value of Well-preserved Home-made Manure. 

When the University farm was taken in charge by the 
present Professor of Agriculture it was found to have been 
much exhausted by continuous cropping, with insufficient 
manuring. Commercial fertilizers were applied, with poor 
success in producing remunerative crops. Hauling manure 
from the village in the valley, four hundred feet below the 
site of the farm, proved to be little more satisfactory, on 
taking into account both its cost when delivered on the farm, 
and its poor quality. On turning attention to the supply 
made at home it was found to have been poorly cared for, 
and badly wasted on leaky floors, in large uncovered yards, 
or in overheated and fire-fanged piles. To prevent such 
waste, which subsequent experience proved to be much 
greater than was at first imagined', a large covered yard was 
built, and with such satisfactory results that we have long 
since ceased to buy manures of any kind ; we find that we 



— 8 — 

can produce large quantities on the farm, worth three or 

four times as much per ton as that which was formerly 

bought in the village. 

For two successive seasons an attempt has been made to 

determine the value of this stock of home-made manure, in 

the same manner and on the same basis as that by which the 

valuation of a sample of a commercial fertilizer is estimated. 

The accumulated layer of mixed manure of cattle and horses 

was at the end of the first season about two feet thick, and 

packed quite solid by the tramping of the cattle over it. A 

large number of samples of about ten pounds each were 

taken at the depth of about a foot, chopped up and most 

carefully mixed together, and a sample of this mixture was 

analyzed, with the following results : 

Moisture 72 . 95 per cent. 

Nitrogen . 78 " 

Phosphoric acid 0.4 " 

Potash . 84 " 

Allowing for the nitrogen a commercial value of 15 cents 

a pound, for the phosphoric acid 7 cents, and for the potash 

4.25 cents, we have the following estimate of the value of a 

ton of the manure : 

Nitrogen 0.78 2000 15 $2.34 

Phosphoric acid 0.4 2000 7 .56 

Potash 0.84 2000 4.25 .71 

Total $3.61 

Of this manure 311 loads were produced in the course of 
the season ; about every tenth load was weighed, and the 
average weight was estimated to be very nearly 3,000 lbs. 
Hence the total quantity produced was at least 460 tons, 
which at $3.61 per ton would have a trade value of very 
nearly $1,682 ; that is to say, it would have cost this sum to 
have purchased the same quantity of nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash, of about the same degree of assimilability, 
in commercial fertilizers. 

The investigations of this season were not fully satisfac- 
tory, because all the manure was not weighed, and the num- 
ber and kind of animals were not noted from month to 
month ; this number was, however, about forty-five. 



— 9 — 

In the second season, 1884-5, these data were all carefully 
taken. In five months, from October 1 to March 1, 199.25 
tons of manure were produced by a herd of twelve spring 
calves, seven winter calves, one bull, twenty-four cows, 
twelve horses, and one colt, making fifty-seven animals in 
all : allowing that the twenty young animals would equal 
ten adults, we should have the equivalent of forty-seven full- 
grown animals. 

The manure was sampled in the same manner as described 

above, and the analysis was made by Mr. A. M. Breed, a 

senior in the Course in Agriculture, with the following 

results : 

Moisture 75 .57 per cent. 

Nitrogen 0.68 " 

Phosphoric acid 0.29 " 

Potash 0.7 " 

As less cotton-seed meal was fed this season than last, it 
was expected that the manure would not be so rich as then, 
and the expectation was confirmed by the results of the 
analysis. 

The trade value of these three nutrients in a ton of this 
manure, computed as before, would be : 

Nitrogen 0.68 2000 15 $2.04 

Phosphoric acid 0.29 2000 7 .41 

Potash 0.7 2000 4.25 .60 

Total $3 . 05 

Calling the total quantity of manure produced 200 tons — 
as we may without seriously affecting the computation — the 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in this year's product 
of manure would cost in the fertilizer market, at current 
rates in 1884-5, $610. 

In all probability we shall not get returns in crops equal 
in value to these estimated values of the stable manure 
spread on our fields from our manure yard ; but nevertheless 
the land to which this manure has been applied has steadily 
increased in fertility, while at the same time producing 
crops whose value was more than twice as great as that of 
the crops yielded by the same land treated with manure 
made in the old style. 

2 



— 10 — 

From experiments to be mentioned in another part of this 
report (p. 12) we have estimated that the manure from a 
milch cow was worth sixteen cents per day. Taking this as 
a fair sample of the herd, we make the following computa- 
tion of the value of the manure of the first season in another 
way. As near as can be estimated, 80 tons of straw were 
used for bedding, the manure from which is estimated at 
$3.50 per ton; hence, for the herd of 45 animals, for 195 
days : 

415 auimals, i!)5 days, at i(i cents per day $1,404 

ho foiis of st raw. at S3 . 50 per ton 280 

Total $i.f>S4 

Lilt is very close to that obtained by the other 
method of computation. 

That the quantity of manure obtained in the first year is 
not. excessively large, as it might seem t<> be, appears from 
the results of' a compulation singault. He estimated 

that a horse weighing '.too His., and a cow (weight not giv- 
en), would produce in wing quantities of 
liquid and solid main:: 

Horse, liquid,.. 12,000 lbs. 

solid ...... 3,000 " 

Vow. liquid. 20,000 " 

solid 8,000 " 

On 1 putation for six and a half months 

would give for twelve ho: tons, and thirty-three 

cattle 250.25 tons. These amounts, together wit! 
of bedding, would make a total ions. The animals 

kept on our farm are without doubt above the a vera 
weight, and would con,- ; yield a Ian 

manure. 



II. 'i Milch 

These experiments wen- made on Mai 1 20, 

with tins . weighing 1,395, 1,120, and 1, 0(H) lbs. 

— tola! weight. rage weight, 1,192 lbs., very 
rly. 



— 11 — 

The food consumed in the three days amounted to 122 
lhs. clover hay, 4 1 lbs. corn-stalks, 45 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 
42 lbs. corn meal, 4 2 lhs. malt sprouts; and 45 lbs. of cut 
corn-stalks were used for bedding, making a total of 337 lbs. 

The total weight of manure, including' bedding, was 802 
lbs., exceeding the weight of food and bedding by 405 lbs. 
The yield of milk was 285 lbs. for the three days, or an 
average of 31| lbs. per cow and day. Each row used, in- 
cluding bedding, 37| lbs. of hay, meal, etc., per day, and 
the producl for each cow per day was 89-^ lbs. of manure 
and 3l| His. of milk. This would show that each cow drank 
83-g- lbs. of water, at least ; a portion of the water consumed 
is exhaled through lungs and skin, and does not therefore 
appear in the manure 

The market value, at the barn, of the food consumed was 
as follows : 

122 lbs. clover hay. at $8.00 per ton.. $0.49 

41 " corn-stalks, at 400 " " 08 
45 •' cotton-seed meal, at 26.00 " " ... — 59 

42 " corn meal, at 26 00 " " 55 

42 " malt sprouts, at 14.00 " " '-!'.' 

Total value WOO 

45 lbs. cut corn-stalks, bedding, at $4.00. 09 

$2.09 

The composition of this food, computed from Wolff's 

table, \\ as as follows : 

Nitrogen. Potash. Phos. Acid. 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

122 lbs. clover hay . 2.40 2.23 .68 

41 •' cornstalks 20 39 22 

45 " cotton-seed meal 2.70 66 1.26 

42 " corn meal 67 .07 U 

42 " maltsprouts 1.65 87 .76 

45 " bedding 22 4;i .24 

7.74 4.65 3.27 

Much less bedding than usual was supplied to these ani- 
mals, and the manure was correspondingly richer in soluble, 
and therefore more valuable, plant food. 

Its trade value for manure is estimated as follows : 

7.74 lbs. nitrogen. at $0.18 $1.39 

4.65 " potash, at 0.5 2a 

3.27 " phosphoric acid, at .08 26 



— 12 — 

It appears from the above that the food consumed by the 
three cows in three days was worth, as a manure to spread 
directly upon the land, $1.88 ; or, in other words, it would 
have cost $1.88 to have purchased the same amount of plant 
food in the form of fertilizers. 

Numerous experiments in Germany appear to show that 
cows iii milk take from their food about 20 per cent, of its 
manurial value. Deducting this 37 cents from the above, we 
have $1.51 as the value of the manure of three cows for 
three days, or 16| cents per cow per day. 

It will be noticed that the cows selected for this experi- 
ment, were above the average in weight, and that they were 
liberally fed. 

As to the question of profit, we have the following ex- 
hibit, the milk being reckoned at 2^- cents per pound; that 
being its value to the University, in the barn, after it was 
drawn from the cow. Ordinarily, however, it is worth but 
1-rr cents, for the manufacture of butter and cheese. 

Cost of keeping a cows 3 days $2.09 

Value of manure produced $i.r>i 

"milk i.n 

Balance in favor of products 6.65 

$8.64 $8.64 

At 1-?. cents per pound for the milk, the balance would 
be $4.27. 

The cost of the food required to produce a quart of milk 
was a trifle less than It, cents. 

The cows had been fed for some time previous to the ex- 
periment on virtually the same amount and kind of food as 
given above, the only difference being that nothing was 
weighed or measured. During the experiment the cows 
were kept in their stanchions the entire twenty-four hours; 
whereas, before this they were allowed to exercise most of 
the clay in a covered yard. The yield of milk of these three 
cows for the three days previous to the beginning of the 
experiment, when they were allowed the liberty of the cov- 
ered yard, was 293| lbs., or 8-J lbs. more than the yield of 
the three days when they were closely confined. 



13 



II. 



FEEDING EXPERIMENTS— ENSILAGE FOR YOUNG 
CA TTLE. 



By Prof. I. P. Roberts. 



Two yearling heifers, one a thoroughbred, the other three- 
quarters Holstein, were kept together from fall to January 
13. They were of nearly the same age, and looked so nearly 
alike in all particulars that it was difficult for a stranger to 
distinguish one from the other. They had grown rapidly 
during the earlier part of the winter, on hay and a little 
meal. The following table shows the weight and dates of 
weighing. Dena, the thoroughbred animal, was fed from 
January 13 on 10 lbs; of hay, 22-^- oz. cotton-seed meal, 25 
oz. of corn meal, and 9 oz. of bran ; Estelle was fed on 
ensilage alone, the first week, beginning with January 13, 
20 lbs. per day ; the second week, 30 lbs.; after that, 40 lbs. 

Date of Weighing. Dena. Estelle. 

lbs. lbs. 

Jan. 18 540 545 

" 20 530 540 

" 27 540 562 

Feb. 3 554 580 

" 10 500 538 

" 17 564 564 

" 24 580 570 

Mar. 3 592 592 

" 10 610 612 

" 17 620 620 

From March 17 on, the ration of Estelle was the same as 
Dena's. 

Mar. 24 630 620 

" 31 652 636 

GAINS IN WEIGHT. 

Dena, January 13 to March 17, 63 days, 80 lbs; January 13 to Mar. 31, 112 lbs. 
Estelle, " " " " " 75 " " " " " 9i " 



1 1 



III. 

THE EFFECT OF SUDDEN CHANGES IN THE h'ATWN 
OA OSITION OF THE 1///A'. 



\\\ Pro I . !. [>. Ro 



' .1 nali/sis by Mi: /•'. /.'. Furry.) 



Thksk trials were made lor the purpose of ascertaining', 
if possible, liow soon a decided change in ihe fodder mani- 
fests itself in the composition of the milk. Three cows were 
included in the experiment, all being fed alike, and their 
milk was mixed together before the sample for analysis was 
taken. 



Date. 


lt A XI ON. 


Dry 




Albumin 
oids. 


Jan'y 




i 


l 1.01 


1.23 


3.01 


■' 






12.97 


1.18 


3.01 


Feh'y 


i 


liny ; 


12 is 




2.75 




2 






3.91 


2.98 


•• 


1 


1 






2. 95 






1 
Hay, ensilage, i km. ol rool s. 






3.08 






; 6 qts. cotton-seed meal, 6 












; qts. corn meal perea. cow. ] 




lost. 


3.12 
















13 


I 


13.32 




3.36 








13 37 


1 00 


3.18 




15 

If, 


; Hay ; 






3.01 












lost, 




■ 








1 (S3 


3.09 


















Hay, ensilage, n qts. cotton- | 


1 1.71 . 










d meal, 6 qts. corn ; 




3.26 


2.70 






meal, i lmslie.1 roots. 




lost. 


3.58 


March 


! 






, - , 




•' 




I 






3.20 




(i 


1 I 










11 












L2 






1 18 






13 




13.31 


1.02 


3.32 










3.85 


3.26 
















20 












25 




12.52 








2fi 


1 






2.91 




'27 


stalks, 12 imarts corn 1 
j meal. | 


12.4(i 

12.28 




3.18 
;.0' 




10 


1 Corn stalks, 8 quarts corn ! 
( meal. ; 


12.76 


3.31 


;;.]:( 




IB 


Corn-stalks, ensilage, 1 qts. 


13 30 


3.76 


3.31 




li- 


cotton-seed meal, 4 qts. 






:'. 37 






com meal. 









— 15 — 

These figures show no important change in the milk, fol- 
lowing immediately on a decided change in the ration ; but 
very great differences in composition sometimes appear in 
passing from one day to another while the cows are i'ad on 
the same ration — as, for instance, in passing from the 13th 
to the 16th of February, or from the 6th to the 12th of 
the same month, or from the 19th to the 22d. On the 
other hand, the slight changes in composition will be no- 
ticed when the very decided changes in ration were made 
on March 6 and March '2 7. The greater uniformity in 
respect to the proportion of protein, and the more gradual 
changes in the proportion are especially noticeable. Evi- 
dently there are disturbing causes independent of the feed, 
working sometimes powerfully on the composition of the 
milk, and affecting the proportion of dry substance and fat 
more than the albuminoid.'-. 

While there is nothing specially new or unexpected in 
these results, they may serve to strengthen the principle that 
in milk feeding experiments a ration should be continued at 
least from twelve to twenty days before attempting to study 
its effect on the milk, and that even then all the milk of the 
last three or four days should be sampled for analysis, or 
that it is dangerous to depend on the analysis of the milk of 
a single day. 



— 16 — 

IV. 

A COMPARISON OF THE PRODUCTIVE EFFECT OF THE 

SAME RATION WITH DIFFERENT 

BREEDS OF COWS. 

By Prof. G. C. Caldwell. 



{Analysis by Mr. F. E. Furry.) 



Two lots, of three animals each, were selected, of average 
quality, one of which consisted of native stock, the other of 
half-breed Holsteins. The make-up and composition of the 
ration, the weights of the animals at different periods, and 
the yield and composition of the milk are given below. The 
weighings were taken once during each of the. periods given 
in the first column, immediately after having been fed in 
the morning and before they were watered. Samples of all 
the milkings for the last four days of each fortnight by 
period were taken for analysis. The greater productive 
effect of the ration when fed to the grade cows is clearly 
shown in the yield of milk, its composition, and the weight 
of dry substance and fat per cow and day, in the last six 
columns of the table. But while the native cows maintained 
very nearly the same yield to the end of the period, there 
was a notable falling off in the case of the grade cows. Of 
course a single trial like this does not establish a principle ; 
without doubt a herd of native stock, selected with special 
reference to their milking qualities, might make a better 
showing than a herd of poor grade Holsteins. The results 
obtained here are offered only as a contribution to our 
knowledge of the subject, so far as it pertains to average 
stock, of the breeds tested. 1 

■These feeding experiments that follow, suggested by Prof. C, were made 
possible only by the kind co-operation of Prof. Roberts. 



— 11 — 

The ration consisted of, in pounds per cow and day : hay, 
2 ; ensilage, 40 ; oat straw, 4 ; corn-stalks, 2 ; corn meal, 2 ; 
cotton-seed meal, 4. 

It supplied of crude nutrients, in pounds per cow and day: 
dry substance, 22.5 ; protein, 3.2 ; ether extract, 1.2 ; carb- 
hydrates, 11.3. 

It supplied of digestible nutrients, in pounds per cow and 
day : protein, 2.3 ; fat, 1.0 ; carbhydrates, 11.3. In respect 
to this last estimation it must be observed that we have very 
few and quite insufficient data upon which to base our cal- 
culations in regard to the digestibility of some of the kinds 
of fodder used ; that, as usual in such calculations, the por- 
tion of the fiber that is digested is allowed to compensate 
for the portion of the nitrogen- free extract or carbhydrates 
not digestible, the digested part of the fiber being regarded 
as genuine carbhydrates, and capable, therefore, of doing 
the same work in the animal economy ; but that Tappeiner's 
well-known conclusions, which have been accepted in all 
their significance by Weiske, indicate that the digested part 
of the fiber does not serve for the production of heat or fat, 
as the starch or sugar of the genuine carbhydrates does. 
Nevertheless, in order that these results may be compared 
with others of a similar character, in which the effects of a 
certain amount of digestible nutrients was tested, we have 
also followed the same plan. 

The digestible nutritive ratio of the ration, expressing the 
proportion of protein or flesh-forming substance to the non- 
nitrogenous matters not capable of being converted into 
flesh or tissue of any kind, was in this ration 1 to 6. 1 

The first set of results given in the following table refers 
to the native cows, the second to the grade Holsteins. 

The rations were in all cases practically eaten clean. 

1 Per cent, carbhydrates + per cent, fat y. 2.5 6. 

Per cent, protein. ~ * ' 



is — 



Results in Milk. 


PEKIOD. 


GUTS. 


YIELD, i 


COMPOSITION. 


A verage 


Per cent 


of 


Pounds per cow 
and day of 


per cow 


Dry 


Fat. 


Dry 


Fat. 






and day. 


Substance. 


Substance. 


Dec. 17 26, 


3050 


21.7 










" 27-Jan. 5, 


3104 


21 7 


losl 


3.9 




0.84 


Jai). 6-15, 




L9.2 










" 16 


3 1 1 8 


20 12.7 


3.8 


2.5 


0.76 


" 27-Feb. i. 




20.6 








Feb. - r , in. 


3296 


19.9 12.7 


:; in 


2.5 


0.69 


'• 11 24, 




19.6 I 








" 25-Mai 




12.7 


3.56 






in Milk. 






PER 


GHTS. 


1 ll.ll.. 


COMPOSITION. 




Per cent 


. of 


Pounds per cow 
and day of 






Fat. 


Dry 


Fat. 








ance. 


Substance 


Dec. 1 














•• 27-Jan. " 






11.2 


4.53 


1.0 


1.31 


Jan. 














■• i 


3426 






4.5 






" 27 Feb. ;. 














Feb. 5-10, 






14.2 


1.12 






" 11-24, 














" 25-Mar. 3, 




26.1 






3.7 




Mar. i 















V. 






imph such ;is were suggested l»v the 
Professor <>(' Agriculture as in accordance with common 
practice; the the experiment was to test the fit- 

ness of such a ration, made up without anj reference U> its 
chemical composition as a whole, and then to compare its 
composition with the I lards, so much 

written about in recent yea 



19 — 



Five steers two years old were selected, of nearly the same 
weight. Their weights at the beginning of the feeding trial, 
December -29. were 1,112, 1,120, 1,066, 1,010, and 1,040 
pounds. They had been ke]>i for six weeks on the ration 
specified in the first period below. They were weighed on 
the dates given in the table, and, as usual, just after eating 
their morning meal, and before drinking. 



Date of Weighing and of 
Change of Ration if an v. 


Ration per Steer 
and Day. 


Total 

Weight. 


Dec. 29 


Ensilage, 20 lbs. 
Corn stalks, 5 lbs. 
Corn meal, 3 lbs. 
Cotton-sped meal, 5 lb-. 

Ensilage, 20 lbs. 

Poor clover bay. 10 lbs. 

Corn meal. 3 lbs. 

( '<n Ton-seed meal, 5 lbs. 

No change. 

May, 

Corn meal, 4 lbs. 9 oz. 
-seed meal, s lbs. 

No change. 

Hay, 20 lbs. 
Corn meal, 6 lbs. 
Cotton-seed meal, 5 lbs. 

No change. 
No change. 


00 et ■* ao oe x 1: cj 00 ~ 
m- — i ci to *m ■* in ys *ft -* 3 ci 






Jan. 20 ... - 


.... 




Jan. 27 

"10 

•• 17 


Feb. 24 












24 
31 


'• 16 



The weights of the five animals were at the close, taken 
in the same order as at the beginning, 1,300, 1,324, 1,296, 
1,190, and 1,210 pounds. 

The total gain was 97'2 lbs., or, per day and thousand 
pounds live weight, 1.66 pounds. 

The following table exhibits the proportion of the several 
nutrients, in pounds and fractions thereof , per day and thou- 
sand pounds live weight, and the nutritive ratio in the sev- 
eral rations given to these steers : 



20 



Protein. Fat. Carbhydrates. Nutritive Ratio. 

Ration of Dec. 29 1.85 0.75 6.94 1:48 

Jan. 20 2.22 0.85 7.82 1:4.5 

Feb. 24 2.24 0.85 9.03 1:4.9 

Mar. 11 2.23 0.84 9.31 1:5.1 

The belter ration given ^ 
after the maintenance ra- > 1.64 0.61 7.77 1:5.7 

tion of the 2d lot of steers, ) 

Wolff gives for a fattening ration the following, of digest- 
ible nutrients, in lbs. per day and 1,000 lbs. live weight : 

Protein. Fat. Carbhydrates. 

First Period 2.5 0.5 15 

Hccond Period :i 0.7 14.8 

Finishing Period 2.7 0.6 14.8 

Oui- rations do not agree at all with these, except approx- 
imately as to the protein. That a ration more in accordance 
with Wolff's might give better results, is indicated by the 
gain of 4.4 lbs. per day and 1,000 lbs. live weight (see 2d 
Report of Cornell University Experiment Station) on a ration 
very nearly like that given by Wolff for the first or begin- 
ning period of the fattening. 



VI. 

THE EFFECT OF A MAINTENANCE RATION. 



By Prof. G. C. Caldwell. 



In another feeding trial four animals were put on an ap- 
proximate maintenance ration, calculated on the basis of 
Wolff's standards, and from our analyses of the fodder used. 

The ration per day and steer consisted of hay, \\ lbs.; 
corn-stalks, 13 lbs.; corn meal, 1J lbs.; cotton-seed meal, 
9 oz. In the following table the dates are given when 
weights were taken, and the sum of the weights of the five 
animals : 



Jan. 20, 


3492 


Feb. 10, 


3588 


Mch. 2, 


3584 


22, 


:i4f>6 


12, 


3202 


3, 


3600 


24, 


3412 


14, 


3532 


5, 


3590 


26, 


3462 


16, 


3520 


7, 


3640 


27, 


3444 


17, 


3524 


9, 


3662 


29, 


3410 


19, 


3532 


10, 


3606 


31, 


3432 


21, 


3538 


13, 


3570 


Feb. 2, 


3458 


23, 


3518 


15, 


3662 


5, 


3444 


24, 


3558 


17, 


3676 


7, 


3428 


26, 


3542 


19, 


3694 


9, 


3366 


28, 


3604 


21, 


3672 



— 21 — 

Here the trial with the maintenance ration ended, with a 
gain, estimated by comparing the average of the first four 
weighings with the last four, of a little over 1.1 lbs. per day 
and 1,000 lbs. live weight. 

The last weights of the four animals, taken in the same 
order as the first, were 1,020, 924, 864, and 864 lbs. 

For the next four weeks the steers were put on a better 
ration, as follows : Hay, 20 lbs.; corn meal, 3^ lbs.; and cot- 
ton-seed meal, 2yf lbs. The total weights at the end of 
each week were 3,702, 3,764, 3,810, and 3,834 lbs. A gain 
was made of about 1.53 lbs. per day and 1,000 lbs. of live 
weight at the start on March 21. The digestible composi- 
tion of this ration is given in the table on p. 19. 

Wolff's maintenance ration (I) and our own in this exper- 
iment (II) in pounds of digestible nutrients per day and 
1,000 lbs. live weight are given in the following table : 

T. IT. 

Total dry substance 14.5 15.3 

Protein 0.7 0.68 

Carbliydrates and fat 8.25 8.6 

Nutritive ratio 1:12 1:13.2 

Our ration is therefore a poorer one than Wolff's, having 
a somewhat smaller proportion of protein to non-nitrogenous 
matter; but for all that there is a notable gain in weight. 
It is poorer also than the maintenance ration used in a simi- 
lar experiment in L881-2 (Second Report of the C. U. Exper- 
iment Station, pp. 19, 20), and, as the theory would require, 
the gain in weight is less on this ration than on the earlier 
one, 2.2 pounds. 

In regard to these standard rations, the results of the 
many tests to which they have been subjected at various 
places in the country 1 make it evident that, with such data, 
as we at present have at command, no ration can be calcu- 
lated that will do the same work, or produce the effect for 
which it was calculated, in all cases, and perhaps not even 
in a majority of cases, and that sometimes such rations en- 

1 See reports of the feeding trials at the New Hampshire Agricultural College, 
Pennsylvania Agricultural College, New York State Experiment Station, 
Wisconsin Agricultural College. 



tirely fail to accomplish the purpose for which they are cal- 
culated and used. The individual productive capacity of 
the animals fed undoubtedly affects the result ; this is shown 
in a striking manner h\ a comparison of the results obtained 
with the approximate maintenance ration of 1881-2 with an 
ordinary fattening ration : the poor maintenance ration gave 
2.2 lbs. increase of live weight per day and 1,000 lbs. live 
weight, while the undoubtedly much richer ration of L882— 3 
gave only 1.66 lbs. This last ration also gave only a little 
better result than the very much poorer and cheaper ration 
of 1- lected for mere maintenance. Other illustra- 

tions of this poinl found in the Second Report of 

this Station. 

Oi' many kinds of fodder included in such experiments 
not enough determinations of digestibility have been made 
to furnish a sound basis for making up a mixed ration, cal- 
culated according to digestibility ; and it has recently even 
been questioned vvheth of the results of the vast 

amount of labor that has been spenl in the investigation of 
the subjeci of the digestibility of fodders are sufficiently 
relia ■■ < >l much use to us. 1 

It, would ■ be of less importance to make further 

iments on rations calculated according to the German 
standards than to make actual digestion experiments with 
such different rations as actual experience, in this country or 
elsewl wn to be most useful I'm- the particular 

purpos y ace fed. Thus we may learn what 

part of such rations, a- a whole, are actually digested and 
go toward iwth or milk ; with a mass of infor- 

matioi mr possession we would then be in a 

better position \<> calculate other rations made up of other 
mixtures. By such experiments, also, the value of Prof. 
Armsby's suggestion could be easily tested — that the effect 
due more to the total amount of digestible 
material contained in it than the precise composition of the 
digested matter, provided only that the ration contains a 



'Araisby. Am. J. Science, 1885, p. 335. 



— 23 — 



reasonable proportion of the three nutrients, protein, fat, 
and carbhyclrates. Unfortunately there are very few places 
in this country where such digestion experiments can be car- 
ried on. 



VII. 

FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH CROPS. 



By Prof. I. P. Roberts. 



Corn, 1882-84. 

At the N. Y. Experiment Station experiments were con- 
ducted in 1882 with grains from the butt, middle, and tip of 
ears of corn. 

Those from the tips showed greater vitality and germi- 
nating power than either those from the butt or middle. At, 
the request of the Director of the Station duplicate experi- 
ments were begun on the University farm in 1883. 

The seed selected was taken from the crib and had the 
appearance of being a little weak. The corn was planted in 
a good, warm, fertile soil, with results given in the follow- 
ing table ; the figures represent the number of plants that 
appeared above ground : 

1882. 1883. 1884. 

50 Hills—.-, seeds 50 Hills— 5 seeds 50 Hills— 3 seeds 
Seeds from the to the hill. to the hill. to the hill. 

Tips 191 171 121 

ButtS 120 105 73 

Middle 218 -ivi 115 

Many experiments will have to be performed to settle this 
question, and in soil free from insect pests. 



Wheat, 1882-83. 

On September 7, 1882, a small field was prepared for test- 
ing twenty varieties of wheat as to their yield and value 



— 24 — 

when treated to a very liberal dressing of manures and fer- 
tilizers. Some ten loads of well-rotted manure were applied 
per acre, and 200 lbs. of high-grade superphosphate were 
scattered broadcast about one week before sowing the wheat. 
The wheat came up and grew most luxuriantly, the leaves 
standing quite erect instead of bending over and keeping 
close to the ground, as is common and desirable in ordinary 
culture. The first hard freeze of winter browned the tops 
perceptibly. By the last hard freeze of spring there were 
no plants left to destroy. While the experiment taught a 
lesson, it was quite a different one from what was expected. 
It was evident from the outset that the wheat was making 
too tender and succulent a growth to withstand a hard win- 
ter. While this piece entirely failed, the ordinary treatment 
of the other wheat fields gave an average of upwards of 
twenty-six bushels per acre. It will be remembered that the 
winter of 1882-3 was a very severe one on wheat in this 
locality. 



Wheat, 1883-84. 

In the fall of L883 a few which had, during our 

former experiments, proved the most promising, w^re selected 
and drilled in, in long, narrow strips across a fifteen-acre 
field which had been prepared for the general wheat crop. 

The whole field had been in oats during the earlier part 
of the season, had been plowed immediately after the oats 
were removed, and treated, to about ten loads of farm-yard 
manure per acre. 

The entire field was then rolled, harrowed, and fitted in 
the best possible manner. Strips two feet wide between the 
plots left vacant, lett.ii ill and air, without doubt 

increased the yield over what il would have been "had there 
been no open spaces. The plots contained ^ of an acre 
each. 



25 



Plot No. 


VARIETY. 


Yield i'eu Plot. 


Yield per Acre. 


Pounds. 


Bushels. Ll>s. 


l 
2 
3 

4 

5 
6 


Clawson 

Champion Amber 

Egyptian 


246 ' 

276J< 

264% 

225 

237% 

199 


41 — 5 
46 — 2 
44—5 
39 — 10 
39 — 55 
35 — 10 


York White Chaff 

Velvet Chatt' 





All the seed 1 except the Clawson M'as sent to me by Prof. 
W. R. Lazenby, Director of the Ohio Experiment Station, 
we having lost these varieties in the failure of the previous 
year. 



Oats, 1884. 

The plots were sown April 22, on good and well-prepared 
ground. The season was fine up to the time of wheat har- 
vest, when a heavy rain and wind storm laid down the entire 
field. This caused the oats to be light in weight, and hence 
a decreased yield. 

The plots contained one-ninth of an acre each, and ex- 
tended the entire length of a fifteen-acre field. They were 
divided from each other by vacant strips of two feet. 



No. OF 
Plot. 


Quantity of 

Seed per 

Acre. 

Pecks. 


Special Fertilizing, 

IF ANY. 


Manner 

OF 

Sowing 


Yield 

OF 

Plot. 


Yield 

per 

Acre. 


Lbs. 


Bu. Lbs. 


l 

2 
3 
4 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


8 
5 
12 
16 
5 
5 
8 
8 
8 
8 


5o lbs salt applied. 

50 lbs salt, 50 lbs plaster 
50 lbs salt. 


Drilled. 

Broadcast. 
Drilled. 


191% 

19014 

177 

161 

196 

163% 

150% 

155 

170% 

142% 


53 - 27^ 
53 — 18% 
49 — 25 
45 — 9 
55 — 4 
45 — 31 
45 — 14% 
43 — 19 
47 — 30% 
43 — 6% 



In comparing the yield of a large number of plots, it is 
never safe to compare those which are widely separated. 
The above should be divided into two groups, the first ex- 
tending from one to six, the second from seven to ten. 
a 



— 26 — 

Mangolds, 1883. 

To test varieties, twenty short rows, equally divided and 

unfertilized, gave yields as follows : 

Yellow Ovid, seed from H. Sibley & Co., yield 530 lbs. 

Long Red, " " " " " 030" 



Mangolds, 1884. 

» 
The rows were sixteen rods long and 3 ft. 4 in. apart ; 

two rows, or a little over ^§ of an acre, constituted a plot. 
The soil was a clay loam, timothy and clover sod. In De- 
cember, 1883, about ten loads per acre of good farm-yard 
manure were spread upon the surface, and plowed under in 
May. 



To Test Varieties. 


P'ERTILIZERS USED. 


Yield. 

Lbs. 
2270 
2100 
1692 


1. Yellow Champion from Agr. Dept., 

2. Sugar beet, " " " 

3. Yellow Ovid, [seed poor]. 


12 lbs. potash salts. 


To Test Fertilizers. 


12 lbs. potash salts, 

12 lbs. cotton seed meal, 

No fertilizers, 
( 4 11)8 dissolved hone, i 
■]4lbs. blood, 
( 4 lhs. potash salts, S 

No fertilizers. 
i s His. dissolved hone, . 
•] 8 lhs. dried blood, 
f H His. potash suits, S 


2160 

1704 
1044 

1954 

1820 

2100 




5. " " 


6. " " 

7. " " . 


,S. '• " 


9. " " 





VIII. 

SELF-FERTILIZATION OF CORN. 



By Prof. I. P. Roberts. 



An attempt was made, in the following manner, to deter- 
mine the productiveness of self -fertilized corn. Two hills 
of corn were planted side by side, and allowed to grow with 



— 27 — 

three stalks in a hill until the ear and tassel began to form. 
The two weaker plants were then removed from one of the 
hills, and a frame two feet square and seven feet high, 
formed of glass on two contiguous sides, and of white mus- 
lin on the other two sides and the top, was placed over the 
remaining stalks. This prevented all contact of foreign 
pollen ; the glass permitted full access of light, and the mus- 
lin of air. No perceptible interference with the normal 
temperature and moisture was observed, as the glass sides 
of the frame were turned to the north and east. It has 
been shown by Italian investigations that the only effect of 
a white muslin screen on the growth of corn is to make it 
slender, but with an increase in total "weight. This, in the 
present experiment, unimportant influence was neutralized 
by having half of the screen made of glass ; and, on the 
other hand, the harm that might arise from confinement 
under glass was neutralized by combining cloth with it, 
which offers little resistance to the passage of air and moist- 
ure. We therefore had our single corn plant under normal 
influences, practically^ only preventing the access of foreign 
pollen. The plant continued to grow finely ; pollen in the 
greatest abundance was produced, and covered the leaves, 
ear, and ground beneath with a thick yellow dust. The 
silks were pollenized in the same prodigal manner, and there 
seemed no reason why the ear should not mature a full com- 
plement of kernels. In the fall the frame was removed, 
when it was found that the ear which had only received pol- 
len from the same plant contained no kernels at all, while 
the three stalks which were free to receive pollen from each 
other or elsewhere had the ears well tilled out with sound 
kernels. Although this is but a single instance, it yet points 
strongly toward the incapacity of the corn plant to close 
fertilize, and the great advantage in productiveness of cross 
fertilization. 



— 28 — 
IX. 

MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF FERTILIZING MATE- 
RIALS. 



By Prof. (J. C. Caldwell 



(Analyses by Mr. F. E. Furry.) 



Ashen. — These samples were sent to the Station for an- 
alysis, partly by members of the Western New York Hor- 
ticultural Society, in connection with the experiments on the 
effect, of potash salts when used as a fertilizer for grapes : 

Potash Phosphoric Acid. 
Wood ashes, No. 1 5.8 1.76 

2 8.24 0.04 

" 3 2.51 1.43 

" 4 5.07 172 

" 5 2.82 0.81 • 

" 6 7.40 1.38 

Tan bark ashes o.84 1.14 

Lintashes 17.19 6.55 

Some of these samples evidently represented leached 
ashes, although they were not stated to be so by those who 
sent them. Of those that were not leached, some of the 
differences in composition are sufficiently great to make 
differences in fertilizing value of no small account, and to 
suggesl very positively the wisdom, in purchasing large lots, 
of first procuring an analysis. 

The tan bark being so thoroughly leached in the opera- 
tions of 1. -inning yields ashes id' little value. The "lint 
ashes,' 1 so excessively rich in both potash and phosphoric 
acid, are the product of burning the waste in the manufact- 
ure of flax. 

Land Plaster. — Some analyses of land plaster given in the 
2d Report of the Station, only for the purpose of showing 
the, differences in composition of the product from different 
layers of rock in the quarry, were criticised as unjustly dis- 
criminating against the plaster in general from that quarry. 
At our request a gentleman of Union Springs procured 



— 29 — 

three samples which, in his opinion, fairly represented the 

product ; the analyses of these are given below. No. 1 was 

ground in 1881, and Nos. 2 and 3 in 1883. No. 4 was 

ground in March, 1885, at the mill in Ithaca. 

Insoluble residue. Pure plaster. 

1 5.29 68.8 

2 7.37 73.7 

3 2.47 89.4 

4 6.93 63.75 

Even these figures show no. little degree of variation in 
quality. 

Determinations of potash were made in twelve samples of 
commercial potash salts used in connection with the experi- 
ments on fertilizing grapes reported below. They were in 
general, especially if muriates, of good quality. Two sam- 
ples, however, that came to the Station labeled " sulphate 
of potash," and which, if of good quality, should have con- 
tained about 80 per cent, of the substance, really contained 
less than 25 per cent., and a third contained but 43 per cent. 
The first two were probably kainite, and if sold at the 
prices usually charged for kainite were what they should be, 
except as to the name. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH VARIOUS FERTILIZERS ON 
INDIAN CORN. 



By Prof. G. C. Cai. dwell. 



This series of experiments was begun with the expecta- 
tion of continuing it through a number of years, or at least 
till conclusive answers should be obtained to some of the 
questions put in regard to the manuring of this important 
crop. A field of about two acres, with a stiff clay soil, 
which by previous cropping had been reduced to a low con- 
dition of fertility, was divided into 33 plots, each wide and 



— 30 — 

long enough for three rows of corn with eighty hills to the 
row. The chief object of the experiments was to contribute 
something to the settlement of the question as to which of 
the three most important constituents of manures — phos- 
phoric acid, nitrogen or potash — will produce the best effect 
when used alone on corn, or what combination of these sub- 
stances is most effective ; in addition to this the attempt 
was made to compare the effectiveness of different forms of 
combination in which these substances may be procured in 
the market, and also the effect of sulphates, especially sul- 
phate of lime or plaster. 

The manner in which this plan was carried out is suffi- 
ciently explained in the following statement of the arrange- 
ment and manuring of plots, and the results. 

In the first three years the results of the experiments were 
entirely unsatisfactory, as all the plots except those treated 
with stable manure gave smaller yields than the unmanured 
plots. While an apparently satisfactory explanation could 
in some cases (and especially in the first year) be given for 
this failure to respond to the fertilizers, by referring it to 
exceedingly unfavorable weather at the time of planting and 
during the. early stages of growth of the crop, in other cases 
the result is inexplicable, and can serve the only useful pur- 
pose of illustrating the difficulty that is liable to attend field 
experimentation. After several plots had received their 
respective charge of manure for three years the soil appeared 
to begin to acquire distinctive characters in the several ex- 
periments. The statement of these results in detail would 
not be worth the space they would occupy, and the report is 
therefore confined to the last two years ; in the second of 
these years, or the fifth of the whole series, all manuring 
was discontinued in order to ascertain the effect of the resi- 
dues of previous manuring left in the soil. 

The results are all calculated to a standard of a yield of 
100 lbs. of ears on the unmanured plots ; plot No. 3, for in- 
stance, yielded in 1878 117 lbs. of ears and 56 lbs. of stover 
for every 100 lbs, of ears on the unmanured plot No. 8. 



31 — 



Fertilizer. 



Phosphate of Soda 

Same and plaster, 360 pounds 

Superphosphate, plain, high grade 
Superphosphate, " " 

Nitrate of coda 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Same as 4 and plaster 360 pounds. . 

Superphosphate, ordinary kind 

Superphosphate 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Nitrate of soda 

No manure 

Stable manure, 14 tons 

Ground rock phosphate 

Ground rock phosphate 

Peruvian guano 

Nitrate of soda 

Nitrate of soda 

Superphosphate 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Superphosphate 

Peruvian guano 

Fish guano 

Fish guano 

Superphosphate 

Fish guano 

Superphosphate 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Fish guano 

Plaster 

Sulphate of potash 

Sulphate of potash 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Nitrate of soda 

Sulphate of potash 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Nitrate of soda 

Superphosphate 

Sulphate of potash 

Plaster 

Sulphate of potash 

Superphosphate 

No manure 

Stable manure, 14 tons 

Stable manure, 14 tons 

Plaster, on young corn 

Stable manure, 14 tons 

Plaster in hill with seed 

Plaster 

Sulphate of magnesia 

Peruvian guano 

Plaster, on young corn 

Peruvian guano 

Sulphate of magnesia 



N 








~ ® 




® 08 


Cost 




per 


9 t-, 


acre. 


5 c 









(^ 




225 


$45.00 




45.71 


360 


7.20 


3G0 


', 17.45 


135 


100 




18.16 


360 


7.20 


360 


M7.45 


100 


135 




17.50 


750 


7.50 


750 
360 


i 19.92 


135 


6.00 


135 
360 


1 13.20 


100 


4.25 


100 
360 


1 11.45 


360 


12.42 


1200 


15.00 


1200 
360 


1 19.20 


1200 


^ 


360 


> 23.45 


100 


J 


1200 
360 


I 15.71 


200 


2.50 


200 


£ 12.75 


100 


135 


200 


1 


100 
135 


> 19.95 


360 


J 


200 
360 


< 3.21 


200 
360 


'■ 9.70 




17.50 


360 


1 18.21 


360 


£ 18.21 


360 


.71 


200 


3.00 


360 
360 


'• 13.13 


360 
200 


( 15.42 



Yield. 



79 
116 

117 



129 
106 



100 
120 
107 

114 

99 

112 

109 

114 

114 
103 



115 
106 



100 
128 



135 
83 



101 
118 



67 



52 
111 
121 



129 
91 



100 
164 
111 

100 

92 

111 

104 

103 

88 
81 



107 

82 



100 
165 



55 
128 
83 

si 

84 

85 

81 

80 

71 

71 



92 



32 



In the following table is given the actual yield in weight 
of corn and stover of the two unmanured plots, and the two 
plots manured with stable manure, calculated for an acre : 



s 

s 

8 

9 

26 

27 




1875. 


1876. 


1877. 


1878. 


1879. 


S3 

u 
© 


C 

t> 

o 


a 

u 

© 


© 

QQ 


a 
o 
o 


5 


a 
e 
o 


u 

<£> 
> 
C 


u 
O 


> 

o 

QQ 




4590 
4800 
3983 

4830 


3323 

4403 
2558 
4095 


3083 
3773 
2835 
2625 


2235 
3401) 
1C20 
3035 


2730 
3075 
2265 
2835 


t 965 

3275 
1290 
2400 


3975 

4755 
3248 
4140 


2550 
2655 

1260 
2205 


1635 
2685 
1350 
2220 


900 
2085 
1005 
1335 


Stable manure, u tons 

No manure 

Stable manure, 14 tons 



The two unmanured plots and the two plots treated with 
stable manure, located midway between the middle and ends 
of the field, were supposed t<> be sufficient to provide stand- 
ards by which to measure the effect of the fertilizers. Hut 
as the yield of one pair of plots was invariably larger than 
that of the other, it was made evident that the Held was not 
so uniform in quality as was expected ; and in the calcula- 
tion of these results of the last two years, each half of the 
field was considered by itself instead of taking the mean of 
the two uninanured plots as the standard tor the whole ; 
this mean was taken as the standard, however, for plots 13, 
14, 15, J (i and 17, occupying the central portion of the 
space between the unmanured plots. 

Nol withstanding that so large a share of the work re- 
sulted in failure, still many interesting results appear in 
these last two years. In respect to stable manure its gen- 
eral reliability for yielding sure if not always profitable re- 
turns is shown throughout the whole series of years; the 
return is often not commensurate with the outlay, however. 
Fourteen tons of good manure to the acre would need to 
give an increase of more than one-fourth over no manure in 
order to he profitably used ; and yet this was more than has 
been obtained in most of these experiments ; and a careful 
observation of field experiments generally will show that in 
a large number, if no], indeed, in the majority of cases, 
stable manure appears to give unprofitably small returns, at 
least so far as regards the crop to which it is directly up- 



— 33 — 

plied. But the value of time in bringing it? constituents 
into more assimilable forms, as well as the large amount of 
valuable residue which may remain in the soil alter liberal 
treatment with the manure, is shown by the figures for plots 
8 and 9, and 26 and 27 for 1879, when the manuring was 
discontinued. Both plots which had received stable manure 
in previous years gave an increase of more than one-half 
over the yield of the unmanured plot. 

The value of plaster in connection with stable manure i« 
well illustrated in these results ; in every instance, excepting 
in 1876, it has increased the effect of this manure when ap- 
plied on the young corn, and in some cases to a very profit- 
able extent (plot 28). It will be observed that in the last 
two years it increased the yield of stover to a much smaller 
extent than that of corn; as might be expected, its effect 
does not continue beyond the year when applied. Plaster 
in the hill with the seed (plot 29) is not without effect ; and 
under seme conditions, probably of the weather, such as 
obtained in 1877, it produced :i better result than when ap- 
plied in the usual manner. Plaster alone, as well as the 
other sulphate — sulphate of magnesia — appeared to do more 
harm than good (plots 30 and 31) ; but the latter with Peru- 
vian guano (plot 33) appeared to bring out the virtues of 
that fertilizer to some extent, since a much better yield was 
obtained than on plot 32 ; but a single result like this has 
but little value. In other cases where plaster was used with 
fertilizers containing phosphoric acid or nitrogen or potash 
(plots 2 and 5, and 24 compared with 21), it increased the 
yield and, as in the case of stable manure, without affecting 
the yield of stover to a corresponding extent. 

The question so much discussed just now, as to the im- 
portance of nitrogen in manure for corn, receives some light 
from the results of these experiments: comparing plots 3 
and 4, it is seen that with a high grade phosphate almost as 
good a yield is obtained, both in the year when applied and 
in the following year, from the residues of the previous 
year, as with the phosphate and nitrogenous manures. 



— 34 — 

Again, in plots 12 and 13 we have no increase with nitrate 
alone, but a notable increase with nitrate and superphos- 
phate. A study of plots 21 to 25 shows the value of ma- 
nures containing no nitrogen, especially if they contain both 
potash anil phosphoric acid, as in the case of the last three. 
Plot 22, with nitrogenous manures added to potash sulphate, 
shows no indication of value for nitrogen, while all the three 
following plots, to which superphosphate is added but no 
nitrogen, give nearly or quite as large an increase as stable 
manure. Nitrogenous manure is not altogether without 
effect, however, as is shown by nearly all the plots which 
received it, such as 4, 7, 14, and 15; but in no case does 
their use increase the crop to a profitable extent, while on 
the other hand the use of potash and phosphoric acid with- 
out nitrogen, and, in some cases, of one of these alone, pro- 
duces a marked increase (plots 3, 13, 23, 24, and 25). 

A few years ago Prof. Lehmann, 1 of Germany, performed 
some experiments which went to show that Indian corn 
requires its nitrogen in the form of ammonia in the earlier 
stages of its growth, and in the form of nitrate during the 
latter part of the season. In an ordinary, arable soil, and 
under ordinary conditions, while no conversion of nitrate 
into ammonia takes place, there is a steady oxidation of am- 
monium salts to nitrates ; hence, if a crop requiring (as was 
shown by Lehmann's results) ammonia salts first and nitrate 
afterwards, is supplied with nitrates only from the begin- 
ning, it, must suffer in the first part of the season for want 
of proper food, to such an extent as hardly to recover, even 
though it afterwards has the right kind of food ; while, if 
supplied with ammonia salts only, it is provided directly 
with what it needs in the beginning of its growth, and later, 
indirectly by oxidation of ammonia, with the nitrate that it 
is supposed to require. The results of the use of nitrate of 
soda alone, on plot 12, as compared with the yield of plot 
14, are in accordance with Lehmann's results. In such of 
the experiments conducted under the direction of Prof. At- 

1 Biederann'e Ceutralblatt, Bd. 7, p. 405. 



— 35 — 

water, 1 in 1878, as furnish any comparison between these 
two compounds of nitrogen, the average effect of a given 
quantity of nitrogen — forty-eight pounds to the acre, in the 
form of ammonia salts — was 30 per cent, better than its effect 
when applied in the form of nitrates, although neither fer- 
tilizer paid for itself. In future experiments on the value 
of nitrogen in fertilizers for corn, it would be only just to 
the element to give it the best chance, and supply it in that 
form in which it can make the best showing for itself. 

Although the annual cost of the fertilizers is given in the 
table, the estimation of profits is a somewhat complicated 
problem, since it is impossible to determine the extent to 
which the crops of these two years are due to the manure 
applied to the several plots previous to the year 1878. We 
therefore postpone the discussion of this question till we 
shall have the results of further experiments. 

Other interesting points might be made out by further 
study of these results ; but as much space has already been 
given to the matter as our limits will allow, and more con- 
sideration has perhaps been bestowed on them than should 
be on a series of experiments comprising but a single year's 
manuring. 



XI. 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE RATION ON THE COMPOSI- 
TION OF THE MILK. 



By Prof. G. C. Caldwell. 



The influence of the character of the feed of milch cows 
on the composition of the dry substance of the milk — that 
is to say, on the relative proportions of its several constitu- 
ents, the fat, sugar, casein, etc. — has been made the subject 
of several investigations. Of the possible variations in these 

i Report of work of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Middletown, Ct., 
1877-8, p. 101. 



— 36 

proportions, those which relate to the fat and casein are the 
most important, since special richness in one of these con- 
stituents makes the milk more valuable for butter, and spec- 
ial richness in the other makes it better for cheese. 

Boussingault, in 1838 and again in 1858, investigated the 
subject, with results showing that the ratio of fat to casein 
in the milk is by no means constant. 1 

In the case of one cow, for 100 parts of casein the fat 
ranged from 85 to 127, and of the other cow from 85 to 
187 parts : with the first cow the smallest proportion of fat 
was yielded on wheat flour fed with hay, and the largest on 
hay alone; with the other, the smallest proportion of fat 
was yielded on molasses fed with the hay, and the largest 
on green clover. 

Dr. Playfair 2 found a great difference in the relative pro- 
portions of fat and casein even between milk of morning 
and night, In the former case, for LOO of casein the milk 
contained but 69 of fat, and in the latter 144, the cow being 
fed on grass ; but when the same cow was fed on potatoes 
and hay there was but little change in the ratio of casein to 
fat, in passing from morning to night. 

In a series of experiments by Rohde and Frommer 3 with 

four cows and various rations the following results were 

obtained with respect to the relation between fat and casein: 

Fat to 100 
Feed added to the hay. of Casein. 
Nothing 74 

Potatoes 88 

Potato mash 62 

Sugar beet mash 108 

Sugar beets 100 

Carrots 88 

Rye mash . ... 99 

Karmrodt ' also observed in the case of one cow the same 

great change in the proportion of casein to fat as was found 

by \)r. Playfair, in passing from morning to night; the 

'Martiny, Die Milch, 1. p. 283. 

2 Journal of Royal Agricultural Society, XI11, p. 25. 

J Martiny, Die Milch, p. 268. 

4 Martiny, Die Milch, p. 271. 



— 37 — 

morning's milk contained 79 parts, and the evening's milk 
128 of fat for 100 of casein. 

Experiments by Stohmann ' with two goats, extending 
from April to September, on different rations, also show 
how the ratio of fat to casein varies, and, further, the steady 
increase in the proportion of casein with the duration of 
lactation since the time of calving. 



Feed added 

to the 

ration of hay. 


Goat No. 1. 


Goat No. 2. 


Fat to loo 


U <H 

CD O 

2. 


** .3 

Oh C 


® o 


*s d 

d cc 
a) ce 

Ph c 


of Casein. 


No. 1. 


No. 2. 


Nothing 

Starch 

Oil 

Nothing 

Sugar 

Nothing 


3.8 
3.4 
4.0 
5.2 
4.6 
5.6 


2.4 
2.5 
2.S 
3.1 
3.3 
3.7 


3.0 
2.5 
3.2 
3.6 
2.5 
3.9 


2.8 
3.0 
3.1 
3.3 

3.5 
3.7 


158 
136 
143 
168 
139 
151 


107 
83 

101 

109 
71 

106 



It also appears that the change in this ratio of fat to 
casein is dependent, at least to some extent, on the character 
of the fodder, since it takes place alike in the milk of both 
animals with the changes in the ration. 

The important practical question in connection with the 
variation in this ratio of fat to casein is whether it can be 
brought under control, so that by feeding a cow in *such a 
way as to increase the yield of milk, this increase may be 
turned into casein rather than fat, or vice versa. This ques- 
tion has been investigated very carefully by G. Kiihn 2 in 
connection with other chemists, and, as is known, with re- 
sults which show that such a thing is not in general possible, 
and that palm nut meal is the only kind of concentrated 
fodder which has been found to cause a decided special in- 
crease in the richness of cow's milk in any one of its several 
constituents. 

Such is clearly the result of his experiments of 1870 with 
four cows, when the ration was varied only by changing the 
proportions of fat and albuminoids in it, by adding ordi- 

1 Zeitschrift f. Biologie, 1870. Jahresberk-ht ueber Agiikultur-Ohenne XIII, 
p. 161. 
a Journal f. Landwirtschaft, 1874, pp. 168. 296 ; 1875, p. 481. 



— 38 — 

nary concentrated fodder to the hay ; in the milk of one 
cow the ratio remained just the same, in that of another it 
varied from only 122 to 123 of fat for 100 of casein ; in 
another the ratio ranged from 125 to 131 of fat to 100 of 
casein, and in the fourth, where there was a slight one-sided 
increase in fat, the ratio changed from 135 to 148 to 100 of 

casein. 

In the experiments of 1871, 1872 and 1873 palm nut meal 
was specially tested, since it had been found by Freitagthat 
it very materially increased the proportion of fat in milk of 
cows to whose ration it was added. In experiments with five 
cows, conducted with each cow separately, the addition of 
6.5 lbs. of this meal to the normal ration of hay, straw and 
roots did increase the proportion of fat, without notably 
altering that of the albuminoids, in every ease hut one, when 
it raised slightly the proportion of albuminoids, and left the 
fat unchanged. The increase in fat ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 
per cent, and the amount of fat to 100 of albuminoids rose 
from 133 to 153 parts in one instance, from 110 to 122 in 
another, and from 122 to 130 in another. 

Bean meal, a feeding stuff rich in albuminoids, either pro- 
duced no effect on the ratio of fat to albuminoids, or re- 
duced the fat ; in one case 6.5 lbs. of this meal added to the 
normal ration lowered the proportion of fat, and raised that 
of the albuminoids, so that the amount of the former for 
100 of the latter fell from 135 to L 12 parts. Brewers 1 grains, 
tried in two experiments, in one ease did not change the 
ratio of fat to albuminoids, and in the other slightly lowered 
the proportion of fat. 

Such in brief is the history of the most important re- 
searches thai touch this question of the possible changes in 
the relative proportions of fat and albuminoids in the milk. 
They show that this proportion differs widely in the milk of 
different cows, that it is not constant for the milk of the 
same cow, that certain articles of fodder may cause an in- 
crease in the proportion of fat and not of casein, and so 
cause a change in the ratio of the one to the other, and also 



— 39 — 

that the individuality of the cow may modify the influence 
of the fodder on the composition of the milk. 

In order to eliminate at least to a large extent the effect 
of the individuality of the animal, and also to test the in- 
fluence of such changes in the ration of cows as may come 
within the usual line of practice of dairymen in this country, 
the following experiments were performed, with the kind 
co-operation of Prof. Roberts. Four (or three) cows that 
had been in milk for about the same length of time were 
set apart from the rest of the herd belonging to the Uni- 
versity Farm, for special methods of feeding. Their ration 
was changed every fortnight, gradually from less to greater 
richness or vice versa, the milk was weighed, and samples of 
the mixed milk of each milking taken to the chemical lab- 
oratory for analysis. There, to a weighed quantity of 
washed and ignited sand sufficiently large to receive about 
100 cubic centimetres of milk about 10 cc. of each portion 
of milk, accurately weighed, was added as soon as it was 
brought in, and evaporated down till the sand was moder- 
ately dry again. In this manner samples of all the milk of 
a week were added in succession to the same quantity of 
sand, and after the last charge had been added and evap- 
orated, the whole was thoroughly mixed and pulverized with 
the aid of a small platinum wire spatula, and a pestle made 
of glass rod, dried as thoroughly as possible over the water 
bath and then for an hour at 100°, and finally for several 
days in the desiccator. 

Repeated determinations of fat and nitrogen in this resi- 
due, yielding results that for the same residue agreed very 
closely together, proved that the mixture was uniform. By 
working according to this method the product of every 
milking is brought under examination with far less labor 
than is required for the examination of each milking sepa- 
rately. The nitrogen was determined by the absolute 
method, and the fat by extraction with ether in the usual 
manner. 

These feeding experiments were repeated for three sea- 



— 40 — 

eons, with four cows in the first two winters, and three, in 
the last. The results of the analysis of the milk residues of 
the second week on each ration are given in the following 
table. Most unfortunately all the records of the feeding 
for the first season were lost ; but the ration was changed 
from fortnight to fortnight somewhat after the same man- 
ner as in the third season, and, as in that season also, the 
cows were turned into the pasture towards the end of the 
experiment. Hence the results, so far as they relate to the 
ratio of fat to albuminoids, are not without value, especially 
since in their general tenor they agree with those of the 
third season. In the column headed " ratio of fat to albu- 
minoids 1- ' the number of parts of fat to 100 parts of albu- 
minoids are given. 

First Series of Experiments. — 

Ratio of fat to 
Albuminoids. 

First ration — Ill 

Second ration 121 

Third ration 126 

Fourth ration 137 

Fifth ration. 124 

Sixth ration 121 

Seventh ration 118 

Eighth ration 100 

Second Series of Experiments. — In the second series of ex- 
periments the records of the feeding were also mostly lost : 
the ration consisted of hay with more or less of a mixture 
of grain consisting of a mixture of equal parts of bran and 
corn meal. Eight quarts of this concentrated fodder were 
added to the daily ration of hay in the first fortnight, and 
this was increased and then diminished by four quarts at a 

time in successive fortnights. 

Ratio of fat to 
Albuminoids. 

First rati on... 127 

Second ration 121 

Third ration 121 

Fourth ration 131 

Fifth ration 130 

Third Series of Experiments. — Three cows were taken for 
this experiment. The grain in the ration was a mixture of 



— 41 — 

one-half bran, one-fourth oats and one-fourth corn meal. 
The milk of the three cows was mixed, and each morning 
and evening a sample was brought to the laboratory for 
analysis, which was immediately dried down with sand as 
usual. 

The following changes were made in the ration, each one 
being continued a fortnight. The quantities represent each 
day's feed in pounds : 





Grain. 


Roots. 


Hay. 


I 


8 


14 


15.5 


II 


16 


14 


12.0 


III 


8 


14 


15.0 


IV 


4 


14 


17.3 


V 








19.0 


VI 


8 





13.5 


VII 


16 





10.0 


VIII 








Grass ad lib. 


IX 


4 





Grass ad lib. 





o 


Per cent 




No. of 
Experi- 


"3 MT3 






o - 






ment. 


Fat. 


Albu- 
minoids. 




I 


696 


3.71 


5.50 


67.5 


II 


736 


3.68 


4.00 


92.0 


III 


671 






110.0 


IV 


640 


3.52 


3.1:1 


113.0 


V 


568 


3.67 


341 


108.0 


VI 


644 


3.14 


3.22 


97.4 


VII 


700 


3.25 


3.88 


83.9 


VIII 


709 


3.C9 


4.59 


80.2 


IX 


700 


3.46 


4.8S 


71.0 



The results of the second series of experiments furnish no 
important contribution to the solution of the question under 
discussion. But on comparing together the first and third 
series, which were continued for about the same length of 
time, it is seen that both show a gradual change in the ratio 
of fat to albuminoids, beginning with a low proportion of 
fat, which rose till about the middle of the period and then 
fell to about the point at which it started ; and in the case of 
the lust series of experiments where, except in one instance, 
the actual per cent, of fat and albuminoids in the milk was 
determined, it is shown that there was a larger proportion of 



— 42 — 

albuminoids in the milk at the beginning of the period, and 
that this proportion fell gradually up to the time when the 
ratio of fat to albuminoids was largest, and then rose at a 
nearly uniform rate thereafter. This does not appear in the 
first scries of experiments, since nothing was determined but 
the relative proportions of fat and albuminoids in the dried 
residue of the milk. 

In regard to the composition of the milk at different 
stages of the period of lactation, Kuhn concluded from the 
results of his experiments 3 that in general the proportion of 
fal to albuminoids became smaller as the period of lactation, 
from the time of calving, lengthens, and that this is brought 
about by a gradual increase in the proportion of albumin- 
oids in the dry substance of the milk, and a decrease of fat ; 
but such a result was not obtained in all his experiments, 
and the change in the ratio of fat to albuminoids was very 
much smaller than in ours. Stohmann, in experiments with 
goats, 2 obtained results quite similar to our own, the milk 
being at first richer in albuminoids, then poorer, and finally 
richer again. 

These records also show that these progressive changes in 
the composition of the milk follow their steady course, inde- 
pendent of changes in the ration, or in other words, that the 
composition of the dry substance of the milk does not ap- 
pear to be affected even by important changes in the com- 
position of the ration, at least, when those changes are such 
as may come within the scope of ordinary dairy practice. 
In this respect our results agree wit!) those obtained by 
Kuhn, Fleischer, 3 and others. 

'Journalf. Landwirtschaft, XXIII (1875), p. 516. 
2 Journal f. Landwirtschaft, XVII (1869), p. 168. 
3 Jalu'es)>ericht ueber Agrikultur Chemie, 1870-2, p. 174. 



— 43 — 

XII. 

PLE URO-PNE UMONIA. 



By Prof. Tames Law. 



[Notwithstanding the length of this article, the great 
importance at the present time of the subject treated seems 
ample justification for its republication. The reader who is 
at all familiar with the course of this disease during the past 
few years will not fail to note the singular accuracy with 
which Prof. Law's anticipations have been fulfilled. The 
paper is reprinted without revision as it first appeared in 
1879.— C. K. A.] 

As the writer has been engaged during 1879 in the direction 
of measures for the extirpation of this foreign plague from 
our territory, it seems reasonable that this Bulletin should 
set forth a summary of what has been accomplished, and 
what lessons have been learned from the experience. It 
must, however, be premised that no means w r ere provided 
for experimental observation, so that questions of the deep- 
est interest to the pathologist and epidemiologist have had 
to lie unaffected by such crucial tests as the experimentalist 
alone can apply. In some respects this is to be regretted, 
as doctrines which are now but the deductions of empiiTcal 
observations might have been placed on an irrefragable 
basis, and certain fields of pathological science might have 
been illumined with a clearer light. 

Yet the observations inseparable from the daily applica- 
tion of suppressive measures are far from being unimpor- 
tant, and in many respects the results obtained are no less 
conclusive than if they had been the outcome of the most 
carefully devised experiment. The widtli of the field under 
observation, so far exceeding what could have been sub- 
jected to experiment, served to give a conclusiveness to 
obvious causations and results, that appeared unvaryingly 
for an indefinite number of times in succession, which could 



— 44 — 

not have been obtained by a limited number of experiments, 
liable as these are to be invalidated by the introduction of 
an unsuspected disturbing element. 

Question of the Generation de novo of Lung Plague. 
— This is the fundamentally important question with refer- 
ence to the possibility of the final extinction of this disease 
here or elsewhere. If the malady can and does originate on 
this continent, no present outlay in money and no effort for 
its present extinction can give us any guaranty of perma- 
nent immunity. After we have rooted out the last existing 
contagious germ new germs will still continue to appear, at 
more or less frequent intervals and in more or less remote 
localities, demanding in every such case the repetition of the 
work, of the outlay and suspense that have already repeatedly 
taxed the energies of the nation. And if such a spontane- 
ous generation of the germs he possible, new spontaneous 
outbreaks of the disease must become increasingly common 
as our waste lands become more uniformly settled, as our 
farms become more fully and carefully tilled, and as the 
herds of cattle become more numerous. When our present 
stock of cattle shall have been doubled we shall have just 
double the number of such outbreaks; when trebled, quad- 
rupled, and quintupled, so will the newly developed germs 
and infected localities be three, four, or live times as many 
as at present ; and the question might well arise whether the 
nation could afford to continue the suppression of such an 
uncertain, intangible and unconquerable enemy. 

But if we can demonstrate that this plague has never been 
shown to exist on the Western Continent, except at points 
to which we can clearly trace the germs from the bodies of 
infected animals imported from Europe ; if we can show that 
wherever such imported germs have been carefully destroyed 
the plague lias been definitely and finally exterminated ; and 
if we can show that the testimony to this effect is not con- 
lined to America, but that the long experience of Western 
Europe and the more recent history of the disease in the 
Southern Hemisphere show with equal clearness that this 



— 45 — 

affection never appears in a new country save as the result 
of imported infection, it follows that national measures for 
its extinction are fully warranted and, indeed, imperatively 
demanded. In this case the outlay of to-day is but a trifle 
as compared with the vast sums that the present suppression 
of the disease will so certainly save to the country in all fut- 
ure time. 

This subject is placed first as furnishing the raison d'etre 
of the law which has been to some extent put in force dur- 
ing the past year, and as being a matter which is apparently 
no better understood by the general public to-day than it 
was a year ago. Those great public educators, the daily 
newspapers, still speak of the plague as inseparable from 
feeding on distillery swill ; and in place of recognizing the 
fact that the infection is restricted to a very limited area on 
the Atlantic seaboard, they affirm that "it has been found 
wherever it has been sought for." (See New York Herald, 
April 19, 1880.) 

Origin of the Lung Plague in America. — Though the bo- 
vine race represented by the buffalo have been undoubtedly 
coeval with man on the Western Continent, and though do- 
mesticated cattle have been in existence in all the settle- 
ments since first introduced in the beginning of the sixteenth 
century, the Lung Plague of cattle was unknown on these 
shores until 1848. In that year Peter Dunn, a milkman 
near South Ferry, Brooklyn, purchased a cow from an En- 
glish ship and placed her with the rest of his herd. Some 
weeks later this cow sickened and died, and infected other 
cows in his stable. From this the plague soon spread to 
other stables in the vicinity, including the great distillery 
stables in Skillman St., and in a few years it had overrun 
Brooklyn, New York, and Jersey City, and extended some- 
what into the country. Many are still living who recollect 
all the facts of the advent of the plague and of the ruinous 
losses that overtook many of the unfortunate dairymen. 

Wm, Meakim, of Flushing, informs us that his father, 
William Meakim, kept a large dairy at Bushwick, L. I., 



— 46 — 

which was infected in 1849 by the carelessness of an em- 
ployee, who hauled a dead cow from a Brooklyn stable with 
his (Meakim's) working oxen. In a few weeks the oxen 
sickened and died, followed by forty of his dairy eows in 
the short space of three months. For the remaining twenty 
years that he remained in the business he continued to lose 
from six to ten cows yearly. 

Twenty years ago (1859) Benjamin Albertson, of Queens, 
L. I., purchased four cows from a herd from Herkimer Co., 
but which had been kept over night in the cattle market, 
Sixtieth St., New York. These cows sickened soon after, 
and conveyed the plague to his remaining herd of 100 head, 
25 of which died in rapid succession and 19 more slowly. 
He was left with but 60 out of a herd of 104 animals, and 
these he sold into already infected Brooklyn stables. 

Dr. Bathgate, of Fordham Ave. and 171st St., New York, 
reports that in the same year (1859) his father's herd of Jer- 
seys contracted the Lung Plague by exposure to infection, 
and that the disease prevailed in the herd for several years, 
and until the infected buildings were accidentally burned. 
He reports further that the plague has never been entirely 
absent from the neighborhood since. 

Cases of this kind might be recorded indefinitely. Enough 
has been given, however, to show that with the advent of 
Peter Dunn's cow, purchased from the English ship, and of 
the infection she carried, there came upon the cities clustered 
around the porl of New York a pestilence, which has never 
since relaxed its hold on the bovine population. In the 
Skillman St. (Brooklyn) stables alone, which were infected 
in 1848, the plague prevailed as long as they stood, and its 
prevalence there was reported by the Massachusetts Com- 
missioners who visited this city in 1861. From that time 
to this it has been constantly extending, not only in the 
cities named, but through the cities and villages of New 
Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia, as 
the demand for cows caused these to draw upon the market 
ol New York, or as the owners of infected herds saw tit 



— 47 — 

to unload their dangerous property upon unsuspecting pur- 
chasers in new and uninfected districts. 

Where the plague was introduced into herds on inclosed 
farms, the unfortunate owners of which were not so selfish 
as to sell out the herd and infection to a new victim, the 
duration of the pestilence was necessarily limited. Sooner 
or later all the cattle on the place had passed through the 
disease, and become proof against a second attack, and if no 
calves were raised, as is the rule on farms supplying the 
large cities with milk, and if no new stock was brought in, 
the disease expired for the lack of fresh cattle capable of 
contracting it. In the towns and villages the case was 
altogether different. Here numerous herds mingled on open 
commons and unfenced lots, so that infection spread easily 
from herd to herd, and as fresh cows were being constantly 
purchased to replace those that had become dry or fat, there 
was at no time any lack of susceptible animals for the in- 
fection to lay under its malignant spell. 

Causes Influencing the Spread of the Lung Plague South- 
ward. — A glance at the connections of New York southward 
will show why the plague should have extended in this di- 
rection rather than west or north. In the first place the 
cities of Newark, Elizabeth, New Brunswick, Trenton, 
Easton, Reading, Burlington, Germantown, Camden, Phila- 
delphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, Washington, Alexandria, 
etc., drew their supplies of fresh dairy cows from the great 
marts to which western cattle were sent. From the com- 
paratively close proximity of these cities they respectively 
drew their supplies from New York, Philadelphia or Balti- 
more, according to which market was at any moment over- 
stocked, so as to depreciate the value of the stock. Thus 
Philadelphia and Baltimore were early infected from New 
York and Jersey City, and once infected they reciprocated 
freely by furnishing contaminated cattle to the market of 
New York, whenever that market was poorly supplied, or 
they themselves glutted. Thus, too, it soon came about 
that all the lesser cities drew constant supplies of infection 



— 48 — 

from these three great plague-stricken centers. All of the 
cities named were growing places with much unfenced land 
laid out for building, or held by speculators in waiting for 
purchasers, and upon these the herds of different owners 
pastured in common, and infected each other, so that once 
introduced the infection became permanent, and each city 
became an independent pestilential center, from which the 
plague extended in different directions at varying intervals. 
If we trace the Erie Railroad westward we shall find that 
beyond New Jersey there is no city for the space of 200 
miles, and this, together with the fact that cattle could be 
drawn so much more cheaply from the west, has hitherto 
prevented the extension of pestilence westward. What few 
infected cattle have found their way west along the line of 
the Erie Railroad have gone upon inclosed farms, where 
the plague reached its limit and died out, in place of finding 
the malign conditions of unfenced grounds and pasturage in 
common, which would inevitably have perpetuated it. The 
non-infection of the west we owe not alone to the immense 
cattle traffic from the west, and the fact that comparatively 
few cattle follow a contrary course, but also to the barrier 
of the Allegheny Mountains, and the entire absence of large 
and growing towns and cities over along stretch of country. 

If we follow the New York Central Railroad we find a 
similar comparative absence of large cities, but we find be- 
sides that the east bank of the Hudson is well fenced, so that 
though the Lung Plague had been introduced, it would have 
had less opportunity for permanence than in the district 
south of New York. North of Yonkers, where the open 
pasturages end, the plague has never gained a permanent 
footing on the east hank of the Hudson. 

On the Harlem Railroad there is a similar absence of 
large cities and common open pasturages, and although the 
plague has extended on this line as far north as the borders 
of Dutchess Co., it has been more easy to deal with it than 
where there was a common grazing ground for different 
herds. From Mt. Vernon southward, however, the common 



— 49 — 

pasturage was more or less in vogue, and with it the preva- 
lence of the plague and the difficulty of dealing with it. 

Along the New Haven Railroad the condition of things 
was more favorable to the propagation of the plague, audit 
would have been certainly perpetuated in some of the cities 
of Connecticut but that the State Cattle Disease Commis- 
sion repeatedly interposed to stamp it out. 

Extinction of the Lung Plague in Massachusetts. — Into 
Massachusetts the Lung Plague was introduced in 1859 in 
the bodies of four Dutch cows imported from Rotterdam by 
Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. All four suffered from the dis- 
ease, two having been very ill on arrival. Three died, the 
fourth recovered, and the plague spread into nineteen towns 
in five counties, and was only crushed out after five years of 
uninterrupted effort on the part of a cattle commission 
This work cost the State &07,51 1.07, and the different towns 
$10,000 more; but this was a cheap investment, as the plague 
has never since made its appearance in the commonwealth. 

Evidence of the Non-existence of Lung Plague in the 
West. — The fact that the Lung Plague has been unknown 
in Massachusetts for the past fifteen years, as it was un- 
known prior to the introduction of the four diseased Dutch 
cows in 1859, speaks volumes for the freedom from the in- 
fection of the great cattle-raising States of the west. At 
the one cattle market at Brighton thousands of cattle arrive 
weekly from the west, yet for fifteen years not only has no 
cow nor lean beast brought this pestilence to the Massachu- 
setts herds, but no ox has shown the characteristic disease 
of the lungs when slaughtered. The same remark may be 
made of Central and Western New York, and of all the 
New England States north of Massachusetts. In a twelve 
years' residence at "Cornell," and with the widest acquaint- 
ance of the herds of the State, I have never seen a case of 
Lung Plague west of the Hudson excepting in one herd in 
the vicinity of Newburg, to which the infection was brought 
by a cow from New York city. Yet all over the State are 
to be found cattle drawn from the west, and filling up the 



— 50 — 

dairy and fattening herds of the Empire State. And al- 
though these herds are frequently decimated, and some- 
times all but exterminated by other diseases (Texas fever, 
Malignant Anthrax, Tuberculosis, etc.), no such thing as 
Lung Plague has ever appeared amongst them. The same 
remarks apply to western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and, 
indeed, all parts west of the Allegheny Mountains. Though 
all supplied by the cattle from the west, all alike have 
hitherto kept clear of the plague. The same is true of our 
Gulf Coast States and Pacific States. No such plague has 
appeared in any of these, though their cattle are multi- 
plying by the million. 

Non-existence of the Lwig Plague hi Other Stale* <;/' 
America. — No Lung Plague has ever been found in any 
other American state. Mexico, Central America, the West 
Indian Islands, the South American republics, Brazil, and 
even Canada have failed to import this Old World pesti- 
lence, and all of them maintain to-day a perfect immunity. 

Z,ung Plague not Indigenous to America. — From far- 
reaching facts like the above it becomes certain that Amer- 
ican soil has no such sad fecundity as to produce the germs 
of the Lung Plague, for this affection has appeared at no 
point of the continent where the descendants of the import- 
ed European germs have not been first carried; and the dis- 
ease is to-day confined to a narrow area on the Atlantic 
coast, where the imported germs were planted, and where 
the conditions favored its preservation and propagation. 
The presence of the disease where the malign European in- 
fection has been implanted, and its persistence and spread 
there for thirty-seven years, when contrasted with the fact 
of its entire absence from all other parts of the New World, 
shows beyond dispute that the disease is the result of im- 
ported virus, and of this alone. Cattle exist and have long 
existed from Labrador to Brazil, and from Brazil to Pata- 
gonia, in the most trying climates — arctic and torrid — and 
under all conditions of life, and every form of abuse and 
neglect; but in no one instance has this fatal plague been 



— .51 — 
f 

generated on the Western Continent and propagated from 
a new point independent of importation. Like the Canada 
Thistle (Cirsium Arvense), the Lung Plague is an exotic, 
dependent altogether upon the foreign seed for its existence, 
and it could be as easily and permanently eradicated as the 
thistle has been from Wisconsin and certain other States. 

Lung Plague not Spontaneous in Africa and Australia. — 
For many centuries the nations of Africa have owned herds 
of cattle, being dependent on them for labor as well as for 
meat and milk in those districts where the "tsetse" proves 
so fatal to solipeds. Since the colonization of South Africa 
by Europeans the settlers have imported many herds from 
Europe, but until 1854 the Lung Plague was utterly un- 
known. In that year, as testified by Rev. Mr. Lindley, a 
missionary, a Dutch bull, imported by a gentleman of Cape 
Town, manifested the plague six weeks after his arrival and 
fourteen weeks after his shipment from Holland, and from 
him the pestilence has since spread over the whole unfenced 
ranges of Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Natal, Znluland, 
Transvaal, etc. Here no such plague was known in all ante- 
cedent time, but once introduced in the body of a single in- 
fected animal it has desolated the whole southern part of 
the continent. 

When discovered, Australia was destitute of cattle. The 
whole bovine stock is therefore the progeny of those intro- 
duced by the colonists. On the rich native grasses and in 
the exceptionally salubrious climate, the cattle throve and 
multiplied until the name of Australian "squatter" became 
a synonym for a man of wealth and influence. But in 1859 
Mr. Boodle, of Melbourne, imported from England a Short- 
horn cow, which fourteen days after its arrival from its 
three months' voyage manifested the symptoms of Lung 
Plague. The whole herd was slaughtered and paid for by 
public subscription, and his lands were inclosed and pros- 
cribed; but a teamster turned his oxen into the inclosures 
under cover of night, the disease spread through their 
means, and on the unfenced pastures it was found to be im- 



— 52 — 

possible to control it. No conditions produced the disease 
until the importation of the infected English cow, but, after 
the entrance of the infection, it received no check from the 
healthful climate nor from the enforced slaughter of tens 
of thousands of animals, and to-day the rich pastures of 
Australia are ravaged by the pestilence. 

Lung Plague not Spontaneous in the British Isles. — In 
Great Britain the pestilence was unknown in modern times 
until in 1S39, when it was imported into Cork, Ireland, in 
the bodies of Dutch cattle sent to a friend by the British 
Consul at the Hague. It spread rapidly over Ireland, and 
entered England and Scotland before 1842. From this time 
it has been kept up by constant accessions of disease from 
the continent, brought in the cattle then for the first freely 
admitted to the English markets. 

Vet the striking fact remains that for the forty years 
during which the plague has prevailed on the British Isles, 
the Highlands of Scotland have kept clear of infection. 
The explanation is found in the fact that native cattle are 
bred in the Highlands and shipped thence to market, but no 
strange cattle are ever introduced. The Highlands are the 
coldest, bleakest, and most exposed parts of the island, the 
places where lung diseases are above all to be expected; and 
their exemption, while the more genial plains are ravaged 
by the plague, shows plainly that the affection is no product 
of Britain, but an exotic that has spread wherever the 
foreign cattle and their infected victims have come. 

No Evidence of Spontaneous Lung Plague in West- 
ern Europe. — 

The Channel Islands. — These, lying directly between the 
infect c(l shores of France and England and famed in all 
times for the abundance and excellence of their cattle, have 
never suffered from the Lung Plague for the very sufficient 
reason that no strange cattle are allowed on the islands. 

Spain <r/i</ Portugal. — These countries, lying out of the 
line of (-attic traffic from Eastern Europe, and accustomed 
to breed and export cattle, hut to import none, have hitherto 
kept free from this as from other cattle plagues. 



— 53 — 

Norway ; Sweden, Denmark, SchUswig-Holstein, Olden- 
burg, Mecklenburg- Schwer in and Switzerland. — These are 
countries into which the Lung Plague has been introduced 
at different times, but from which it has been completely 
expelled by well-directed suppressive measures. 

Extinction of Lung Plague a, National Duty. — From all 
that has been said it follows with certainty that this plague 
has never been known to arise spontaneously in Western 
Europe, and that out of the center of the Eastern Continent, 
to use the words of the immortal Haller, "the disease never 
appears but as the result of the introduction into a country 
or district of an animal from an infected place." This being 
granted it must be allowed that it is quite possible to eradi- 
cate from the United States the deadly virus which has 
been introduced from the Old World and maintained by 
continuous descent in the bodies of our home herds. The 
disease being produced by infection, and by infection only, it 
results of necessity that if we can limit that infection we shall 
in the same ratio limit the ravages of the plague, and if we 
can render infection impossible, we render impossible the 
continued existence of the pestilence in our midst. 

Mortality. — In estimating the mortality from thisplague, 
we will meet with the most varied results according to the 
conditions of life and as to whether we take the ratio of 
deaths in infected herds, or in the whole cattle of a district 
or country. Loiset states the losses for the entire bovine 
population of the departement du Nord, France, at 40 per 
cent, per annum, divided as follows : In city dairies 26 per 
cent., in distillery and sugar factory stables 12 per cent., 
and on farms 2 per cent. Here the deaths are in exact ratio 
with the frequent • changes of stock, and the exposure of 
new and susceptible animals to infection. In the Nord in 
19 years it had killed 212,800 beasts of a total value of 52,- 
000,000 francs (over $10,000,000). 

Yvart gives the losses in infected herds only, in Avignon, 
Cantal and Lozere at 30, 40, r >0, 60, and even 77 per cent, 
(average 35 per cent.). 



— 54 — 

Gatngee gives the losses in the city of Edinburgh in 
1861-2 at over 5S per cent., and the money loss at £14,512 
($70,000). Finlay Dun shows from the English Cattle In- 
surance Co. statistics that the losses from this plague from 
1863 to L866 were •">0 to 63 per cent, per annum. The losses 
for the British Isles, computed from agricultural statistics, 
the records of insurance companies, etc., were close upon 
£2,000,000 (110,000,000) per annum. 

In Holland Sauberg reports a, yearly loss of 49,661 head, 
while in Wiirtemberg it amounted to 39 per cent. 

Mortality Greater in Warm Climates and Seasons. — Mr. 
Lindley reports that in the hot climate of South Africa it is 
no uncommon thing to find a whole herd of 100 or 200 cat- 
tle perish without exception, and other colonists have fur- 
nished me personally with accounts precisely similar. With 
these agree our experiences with the disease in the summer 
season in New York. When we entered on our work in Feb- 
ruary, 1ST9, it was loudly claimed by a party of obstruc- 
tionists that tiie affection was the simple result of exposure 
to the changeable weather, ami to the transitions from the 
hot, close, reeking stable to the chilly blasts out of doors. 
But from June onward, so long as the really hot weather 
lasted, the number of victims in a herd was greatly increased, 
the cases succeeded each other with a hitherto unexampled 
rapidity, and nearly every case proved severe and rapid in 
its course, so that death frequently resulted in two or three 
days after the animal was noticed to be ill. In our cool, 
dry winters the course of the disease is mild, so that the 
patients survive for weeks, and even months, often becom- 
ing frightfully emaciated and presenting the spectacle of 
walking skeletons; whereas in the burning summer and 
autumn death often comes so speedily that the carcass may 
present the round, plump, fat appearance of an animal that 
has died suddenly by accident. Of this high summer mor- 
tality, the cases of Meakim and Albertson (pages 45 and 46) 
are illustrative examples. As further illustrating this point: 
.Joseph Schwab, 149th St. and Southern Boulevard, New 



— 55 — 

York, bought a cow, which soon sickened and infected his 
herd, so that he lost twenty-three head in two months, and 
but seven recovered. In autumn, 1878, Bischoff, Long Island 
City, bought four cows of a dealer, all of which sickened, 
and only one was saved. Mr. Valentine, of Jamaica, L. I., 
bought some infected cows from two Brooklyn dealers, and 
by August, 1879, his herd was so badly diseased that we 
were compelled to slaughter the whole. Patrick McCabe 
bought five cows from a dealer ; sickness appeared among 
them six weeks later. He lost the whole five, and within 
two months thereafter four more that he had laid in later. 

The Losses must Increase as the Plague Reaches the 
Warmer States. — It is needless to multiply instances suclf as 
those given above. A mortality of seventy, eighty, or ninety 
per cent, in South Africa, and in the warm season in New 
York, implies that we should suffer an equal mortality in the 
Southern States throughout the greater part of the year, 
and in the hot summers of the Mississippi Valley, so that no 
estimate of losses deduced from the statistics of England or 
Western Europe will furnish fair data for estimating our 
own in case of a general infection of the United States. 
England, with 6,000,000 head of cattle, has lost $10,000,000 
a year for forty years past. We, with 37,000,000 head, 
should therefore lose $60,000,000, plus the extra losses con- 
sequent on the spread of the plague in the semi-tropical sum- 
mers of Texas, the Mississippi Valley, and the plains, where 
the great bulk of our cattle is kept. 

Present Losses from the Lung Plague in the United States. 
— Of the present losses from the Lung Plague in the United 
States two items may be quoted as being more tangible than 
such incidental ones as the losses of pasture, fodder, build- 
ings, current business, and prospective increase of stock. 
The items referred to are the depreciation of our beef in the 
English market and the losses by death in our home herds. 
The difference in value of American cattle when, as at pres- 
ent, compulsorily slaughtered at the port of debarkation, 
and when they can be moved inland and held for a market, 



— 56 — 

is variously stated at from $7 to $10 per head in favor of 
the latter. From the port of New York alone the shipments 
during 1879 amounted to 95,380 head, which are therefore 
depreciated in value to the extent of $800,000. If we add 
the exports from Portland, Boston, Philadelphia, and Balti- 
more there must be a gross depreciation of no less than 
$1,500,000 per annum. The yearly losses from deaths in 
our herds cannot be less than $500,000 more, so that in these 
two items alone we are probably losing $2,000,000 per 
annum, though the plague has invaded but the merest frag- 
ment of our immense territory. 

Mediate Contagion. — As our observations throw some 
light on this disputed question, a few illustrations may be 
given t<> show that direct contact is not essential to infection. 

Infection through the Air. — It lias long been noticed that 
successive victims in the same buildings are not attacked in 
the order in which they stand, but that the plague usually 
passes over two or three cattle to strike down a more sus- 
ceptible subject at a greater distance. We have also no- 
ticed repeatedly that when the 'cattle of different owners 
stood under the same roof, hut separated by a board parti- 
tion, that infection spread quickly from the one to the 
other, though it was impossible for them to come in contact. 

And yet a free dilution in the air seems to destroy the 
contagium in a very short distance. At Ridgewood, Queens 
Co., in the spring and summer of 1879 the herd of T. Ryan 
was almost exterminated' by the Lung Plague, as many as 
twenty head Inning perished ; while over the fence, in a 
building not over forty feet distant, the herd of George Van 
Size kept healthy throughout. Roll quotes instances of 
in lection at fifty and one hundred feet, and others at two 
hundred and even three hundred ; but in such cases there is 
always the possibility of the conveyance of the virus on 
light objects like paper, hay, straw, etc., blown by the wind, 
or on the surface of men or animals. 

Contagion through ?/i< : Clothes of Attendants. — 1. In Feb- 
ruary, 1879, Ditmas Jewell, of Fast New York, interested 



— 57 — 

himself in the cause of the suffering milkmen, and daily 
visited several of the worst infected stables in the locality. 
He also paid a good deal of attention to a favorite Jersey 
cow of his own, which was kept in a stable surrounded by 
spacious grounds and was never allowed to go out. In the 
end of March she sickened and died of Lung Plague. 

2. Joseph Hyde, Seventieth St. and North River, New 
York, had lost twenty cows in four months, in the spring 
and summer of 1879, and was allowed to put up a new sta- 
ble for fresh cows, two lots distant from his former one, on 
condition that separate attendants should be furnished for 
the two stables. The fresh cows were all from healthy 
country districts and the stable was built of new wood, yet 
a month later the plague showed itself in that as well. It 
was then found that the attendants in the different stables 
had helped each other in the owner's absence. As showing 
that the infection was not conveyed through the air, the 
lot between Hyde's two stables was occupied by the house 
and cow stable of a different party, whose stock kept sound 
throughout. 

3. George Youngblood, Little Britain, Orange Co., sent a 
cow to New York by the Newburg boat May 29. She 
never left the pier, nor came in contact with other cattle 
except those coming by the boats from healthy country dis- 
tricts, but, like others, was handled by milkmen and dealers. 
She was taken back by the Newburg boat the same day she 
arrived (May 30), and two weeks later she sickened with 
Lung Plague, and conveyed it to Youngblood's herd. The 
cow was sent back to New York for sale September 30, 
when she was killed as a diseased animal, and nearly a third 
of one lung was found to be necrosed and encysted. (For 
other cases see my Report to General Patrick, presented to 
the Legislature.) 

To deny the spread of the disease by this channel, as 1ms 
been done, and to act upon this, is but to offer facilities for 
the plague to extend its ravages, and to render doubtful or 
impossible its final extinction. 

5 



— 58 — 

Contagion through Infected Buildings. — Beside the fact, 
notorious in all countries where Lung Plague prevails, that 
dealers' stables arc the grand foci of infection, and that 
animals sold by dealers are the most prolific causes of its 
spread, it may be well to name one or two instances in which 
empty infected stables served to propagate the pestilence. 

1. John Midler, Farmingdale, L. I., on January 1, 1879, 
got from a dealer a cow which soon sickened and died. 
Soon after he bought another cow, which speedily died in 
her turn. Later lie got a calf from the healthy stock of a 
neighbor ; but it, too, sickened and died, and the stable was 
left tenantless. 

2. Messrs. Niedlinger, Schmidt &> Co., 406 E. Twenty- 
seventh St., New York, lost a cow from Lung Plague Au- 
gust, 1878. Three months later another cow was placed in 
the same stable, soon began to do poorly, and after a whole 
year (August 18, 1879) died of Lung Plague. 

3. Patrick Green, West Farms, N. Y., entered the Bleach 
in April, 1879, and stocked it with thirty-two cows fresh 
from a healthy district. About May 1 sickness appeared in 
las herd, and then he learned that the tenant of the previous 
year had lost heavily with Lung Plague. Eleven of the 
stock had to be sacrificed before the disease was finally 
arrested. 

4. Mr. John H. Cheever purchased of Mr. Odell a farm 
at Yonkers, on which a cow had died of Lung Plague one 
month before. In the end of September, 1879, he moved 
on fifteen favorite Jerseys from the Tilly Foster Mine farm, 
near Brewsters, placing them in the infected stables. Soon 
the plague attacked the Jerseys, and all died or were slaugh- 
tered. 

Such cases could be adduced in great number ; but these 
must suffice to show the urgent necessity for the thorough 
disinfection of stables, yards, ears, boats of all kinds, load- 
ing-banks, piers, etc., etc., where infected cattle have been, 
in order to a permanent extinction of this plague. This 
disinfection should of course be the more thorough the 



— 59 — 

closer the infected building and the greater the accumula- 
tion of rubbish, fodder, etc., in which the virus may find a 
resting place. With free exposure to the open air disinfec- 
tion takes place naturally and early. 

Contagion through the Food. — 1. Contagion tlirouo-h 
pastures is exceedingly rare. In the open air and in cli- 
mates with frequent alternations of rain and sunshine, at 
seasons when the virus, like other organic matter, is not 
locked up in frost, a spontaneous disinfection takes place in 
a very short period. But with continuous frost or with a 
very dry, rainless climate the infection may be preserved 
for an indefinite length of time. A striking instance of the 
conveyance of the infection through pastures in a dry cli- 
mate is furnished in the infection of Australia (page 51). 
The working oxen put upon the pastures where the sick 
cattle had been were themselves infected, and became the 
means of infecting the entire country. 

The same is unquestionably often re-enacted during the 
dry seasons of our infected States, on the common or un- 
fenced pasturages on which the herds of different owners 
graze successively. It has been a common practice for boys 
to watch such herds in order to keep them apart and prevent 
infection ; but as they are allowed to browse successively on 
the same soil, the virus is transmitted and the disease spreads, 
in spite of this precaution, precisely as it did at the start of 
the plague in Australia. 

The significance of such results cannot be overestimated. 
It has been amply shown above that the one great cause 
of the perpetuation of the plague on this continent has been 
the mingling of cattle on unfenced grounds ; and it is now 
clear that it is not the mingling alone, but also the pastur- 
age on the same place successively that is particularly dan- 
gerous. The contrast in results, as seen on a large scale, is 
sufficiently important to be quoted. In New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania, where the use of common unfenced pastur- 
ages was allowed, the Lung Plague is still very widely prev- 
alent, after a year's work for its extermination. In New 



— 60 — 

York wherever it was possible to prevent such common past- 
urage the plague was definitely exterminated, though for 
half of the year lack of means prevented the prosecution of 
the work of extinction so vigorously as could be wished. 
Six out of eight infected counties were virtually cleared, 
and the seventh (Queens Co.) was also purified, except on 
its border adjoining Brooklyn (Kings Co., the eighth). In 
Brooklyn alone did the plague continue with little mitiga- 
tion, for in Brooklyn the Aldermen passed an ordinance 
authorizing pasturage in common on unfenced lots, in defi- 
ance of the State law, and abolished the cattle pounds ; and 
in Brooklyn the police magistrates dismissed delinquents 
brought before them for violation of the State law, and rep- 
rimanded the officers who arrested them. The future may 
be predicted from the past. If the other infected States 
continue to allow the propagation of the plague by the com- 
mon use of unfenced pasturages, and to allow cattle of all 
kinds to mingle and infect each other in their markets, they 
may spend hundreds of thousands on suppressive measures, 
but the plague will survive and the nation will continue to 
lose its millions annually ; whereas the loss now sustained in 
a single year, if faithfully and intelligently applied, would 
forever rid the country of the pestilence. If the Brooklyn 
city officials are to be allowed to defy the law in the future, 
as in the past, the splendid success of the first year's work 
outside that plague-spot will not be consummated for the 
entire commonwealth, but appropriations will be demanded ; 
and an expensive guardianship must be maintained year 
after year, with the greatest uncertainty as to the final ex- 
tinction of the virus. 

2. "Swill" That " swill " is not the cause of Lung Plague 
is well enough known to all who have made a study of the 
affection. Distillers' and brewers' "swill" is fed in all the 
large western cities, where the Lung Plague is absolutely 
unknown. The same is true of swill-fed cattle kept in in- 
fected districts, but which have never been exposed to con- 
tagion. For three months in the end of 1879, and three 



— 61 — 

more in the beginning of 1880, over 700 western steers were 
kept in the Blissville distillery stables that had proved so 
fatal in the spring of 1879. The stables had meanwhile 
been thoroughly disinfected, and the greatest precautions 
were taken to shut up all channels of infection, and not one 
of these steers contracted Lung Plague. Yet the popular 
prejudice against swill is not devoid of foundation. To the 
distillery stables gravitate cattle from all regions, for fatten- 
ing. If Lung Plague exists in the district such stables 
therefore become early infected, just as dealers' stables do 
in the same localities. In the swill stables the warmth and 
close, reeking atmosphere greatly favor the preservation of 
the virus and its conveyance from beast to beast. But it is 
further to be noted that in these stables the stock is arranged 
in rows, and a whole row of fifteen to twenty cattle is fed 
from the same trough. The trough is gently inclined from 
end to end, and the liquid swill runs into the trough from a 
pipe at the one end, and slowly passes in front of each ani- 
mal in succession to the other. If a sick beast stands in 
such a row, the infected breath blows on the passing liquid 
and the virulent expectorations drop into the feed, to be car- 
ried on, to be inhaled and swallowed by all susceptible ani- 
mals farther on in the same row. It may be that the virus 
introduced into the stomach is harmless, as implied in a sol- 
itary experiment at the Alfort Veterinary College ; yet as 
cattle breathe on their food there cannot be a doubt that 
the virulent matter in swill, as in other fodder, makes its 
way to the lungs in the breath, and that infection from this 
food takes place in the ordinary way. 

The Lung Plague Peculiar to Bovine Animals. — 
While cattle of all kinds are susceptible to the virus of Lung 
Plague, this susceptibility is limited to the bovine family. 
In the zoological gardens of Europe buffaloes and yaks, etc., 
have fallen victims to it, but in no instance has it been 
shown to extend to the smaller ruminants (sheep, goats, 
deer). This is the more remarkable that the small ruminants 
have often mingled freely in pastures and even in close build- 



— 62 — 

ings with cattle suffering- from this complaint. In this 
respect, therefore, the Lung Plague differs essentially from 
the other great scourges of cattle — Rinderpest, Aphthous 
Fever, Anthrax, Tuberculosis, and Milk-sickness. 

I.\< i i'.ation, its Limits. — The occasionally prolonged pe- 
riod of incubation, during which the virus remains dormant 
in the system of an infected animal, is one of the most 
redoubtable features of this disease, and demands from the 
official sanitarian a series of precautions which are not re- 
quired in other cattle plagues. While incubation may be 
as short as six days in hot weather, it may none the less be 
extended to sixty days (Delafond, Verheyen), sixty-seven 
days (French Commission), ninety days (Reynal), or 104 
(Roll, Gamgee). 

In support of the last-named period three remarkable in- 
stances of the infection of new countries may be named. 

Norway. — In I860 some Ayrshire cattle were imported to 
the Agricultural College of Aas, direct from Scotland. 
Three months later some of them were noticed sick, and the 
country was only saved by the slaughter of all native stock 
with which they had come in contact, and the long seclusion 
of the surviving Ayrshires, so that danger of infection from 
them might he obviated. 

Australia. — In 1858 a Shorthorn cow that had been three 
months at sea was landed at Melbourne, and a fortnight 
later she manifested the Lung Plague. This was 104 days 
after shipment from England, and the nature of the disease 
is only too sadly certified by the steady extension of the 
plague over Australia from the date in question. 

South Africa. — In 1854 a Dutch bull was landed at Cape 
Town, after Inning passed two months at sea. Six weeks 
after his arrival he showed signs of Lung Plague, and from 
him the pestilence spread to the whole of South Africa, and 
still prevails. Here again was an interval of 104 days from 
the time of shipment in Holland to the first manifestation 
of the disease in Cape Colony. 

To these may be added some instances that happened 



— 63 — 

under our own observation, and the first two of which are 
as clear and unequivocal as the instances above mentioned. 

In East Lothian, Scotland, in 1855, a farmer who had 
had his stock clear of disease for years, purchased a cow, 
which for three months after purchase kept in low condi- 
tion, and occasionally knuckled over at the fetlock as if 
rheumatic, but fed and milked well. At the end of ninety 
days she was taken with Lung Plague, and conveyed it to 
all the cattle on the farm. There was no other Lung 
Plague in the neighborhood, nor had there been for a length 
of time. 

Josiah Rogers, of Sag Harbor, Suffolk Co., N. Y., whose 
herd had been exposed by contact with a cow from an in- 
fected herd, but which did not herself show sickness, turned 
a cow out on the grounds of Montauk April 28, 1879. On 
August 10 she was found suffering from the Lung Plague, 
and was slaughtered in consequence. This was 104 days 
after she had left the home herd, and probably 110 or more 
after she had taken in the germs of the plague. The cow 
would not have been left to sicken on Montauk but that she 
was entered in the name of Mr. Rogers' son, and her con- 
nection with an exposed herd thus failed to be recognized. 
Four more of Mr. Rogers' herd suffered at home, and one 
after it had been sold and removed to Old Westburg, 
Queens Co., the sale having been made before we had any 
knowledge of disease in Suffolk Co. This cow sickened 
forty-nine days after she had left Rogers' place. 

Messrs. Kiedlinger, Schmidt & Co., 406 East Twenty- 
seventh St., New York, had a cow die of Lung Plague 
August, 1878. Three months later a fresh cow was put in 
the same stable (without disinfection). She did poorly 
since, and August 18, 1879, was found to have Lung Plague 
and was sacrificed. A case like this is inconclusive, as we 
cannot tell the date of infection from the contaminated 
stable ; but in the continued unthrif tiness it bears a striking 
resemblance to the Scotch case quoted above, and if it can- 
not be advanced as an incubation of nine months, it shows 



— 64 — 

the great danger of passing as sound animals that have 
been in an infected and uncleansed building, though no act- 
ive disease may have been shown there for many months. 

John McGuigen, 173d St. and Central Avenue, New- 
York, purchased in July, 1879, a fresh cow which milked 
well but looked unthrifty for five months. He had had no 
Lung Plague before, and purchased no new cows in the 
interval, yet in the end of November, 1879, she sickened and 
died a most characteristic case of the plague. 

These two last cases are not advanced as proof of such 
protracted incubation, for in an infected city it is possible 
that the virus was conveyed to them by visitors. Yet their 
continued unthriftiness, so like what appears in certain 
other eases of prolonged incubation or delayed development 
of the plague, makes them specially suggestive, and should 
make observers watchful for other cases in which the incu- 
bation may possibly have exceeded the present certified limit 
of 104 days. 

Official Action in View of such Prolonged Incubation. — 
Seeing that the germs may be carried in the system of the 
infected animal unseen and undetectable for 104 days (fif- 
teen weeks), it follows that, to secure stock against danger 
from a single animal coming from an infected district, such 
animal should be secluded in quarantine under special attend- 
ants for this period of time. In the case of a single animal 
arriving from a foreign country, he should be detained at 
the port or landing until the expiry of fifteen weeks from 
the date of shipment from the foreign port. With herds 
more latitude maybe given ; for if infection should be pres- 
ent it is almost certain that the incubation will be shorter 
in some, and thus symptoms will be shown at an earlier 
date. Yet a period of detention of ninety days cannot be 
safely abridged. In case of the transportation of cattle 
from infected States and districts a quarantine for at least 
the same length of time is essential, while in the case of 
single animals it cannot be considered as protective unless 
it has been extended to lot days. 



— 65 — 

As the different States have not recognized the need of 
veterinary sanitary specialists to direct their suppressive 
measures, the most egregious blunders in this respect have 
been committed in practice. 

In the autumn of 18V 9 two herds of cattle from infected 
Holland were entered at the port of New York, examined 
by the New Jersey officials, and at once sent on to Illinois 
to mingle with herds from which sales were being constantly 
made, and even to be carried around and exhibited at vari- 
ous State fairs. 

The same New Jersey authorities kept on their frontier 
inspectors with instructions to examine all cattle coming 
from the infected regions of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and 
Maryland, to turn back all the diseased, but to allow the 
sound to enter. It was well, truly, to shut out the actu- 
ally sick ; but where was the protection when cattle from 
infected herds, and bearing diseased germs which would 
not manifest themselves for one to three months to come, 
were allowed free entrance? 

In Pennsylvania the attention of the officials seems to 
have been confined to the quarantining of infected herds and 
the slaughter of the incurably sick, and there is reason to 
believe that in many cases the quarantine was raised at far 
too early a date. In Pennsylvania, as in New Jersey, store 
and fat cattle from all quarters — infected and otherwise — 
were admitted together or successively into the same stock- 
yard for sale. In short, suppressive measures were largely 
restricted to the dealing with herds after they had become 
infected, while the main sources of the pestilence, the cattle 
coming from infected districts and those sold in infected 
markets, were left free to carry disease into new herds. 

To crown this series of blunders, the present officials of 
New Jersey threaten those of New York with litigation in 
the Supreme Court of the United States, with the view of 
forcing the latter to admit New Jersey store cattle into the 
New York markets. Had these officials had an intimate 
acquaintance with every herd in New Jersey for six months 



— 66 — 

past, there would have been a shadow of reason in their 
course ; but, having just come into control of the veterinary 
sanitary work, the best construction that can be put upon 
their course is that they are wofully ignorant of the subject, 
and are judging this disease from some supposed but unreal 
analogy with certain plagues of men, in which incubation 
does not extend over a few days. 

Some of the officials in question claim special credit for 
husbanding the country's money, and it is claimed that 
Pennsylvania has expended less than $3,000 in indemnities 
for slaughtered cattle. No reflection could be more con- 
demnatory of their system. In place of a vigorous plan of 
extinction founded on an intimate knowledge of the plague, 
and which bars all channels for its further diffusion, while 
the infection that is already in existence is being remorse- 
lessly stamped out, they adopt measures that are defective 
at every step ; and, while they restrict the pestilence at one 
point, they actually favor its spread to other parts of their 
territory and that of their neighbors. They cut down a few 
shoots that have already grown up into plants, but pay no 
attention to the incessant sowing of the same noxious seed 
going on all around them. The)' save a few thousand dol- 
lars to the treasuries of their respective States, but in doing 
SO they are perpetuating the Lung Plague on the continent 
at a present cost of $2, 000,000 per annum to the nation (see 
page 56), and they are every day endangering the spread of 
the plague to our Southern and Western cattle ranges at a 
prospective loss of $60,000,000 per annum (see page 55). 
An economy which puts men who are unacquainted with a 
plague in charge of the measures to be carried out for its 
extermination is the most reprehensible misappropriation of 
public money, since it leads the people to believe that all 
necessary precautions are being taken, while in fact it is but 
maintaining a heavy expense with no adequate result. 

Tendency to the Encysting ok Dead Masses of Lung. 
— The limits allotted to this article will not allow a consid- 
eration of the distinctive symptoms and pathological lesions 



— 67 — 

of this disease (for this see my Lung Plague, or my Report 
for 1879); but there is one pathological feature of this com- 
plaint with such all-important bearings that it cannot be 
passed over unnoticed : This is the constant tendency to the 
death of large portions of the lung by the plugging of its 
blood-vessels, and to the inclosnre of such necrosed masses 
in a complete fibrous cyst formed by the organization of the 
surrounding exudation. The blood-vessels leading to a par- 
ticular group of lobules become implicated in the inflamma- 
tion even to their internal coats ; the blood contained within 
them immediately coagulates ; the normal circulation in such 
parts ceases ; the blood that filters into their capillaries from 
those adjacent loses its liquid portion by quick transudation 
through the coats of the vessels, so that they are left filled 
to repletion with blood-globules only ; the circulation and 
life in such parts cease, and around their margin where the 
blood still circulates the exudation is slowly built up into 
fibrous tissue, forming a complete and unbroken envelope in 
case of recovery The imprisoned mass of dead lung, com- 
pletely excluded from contact with air and aerial germs, 
does not putrefy, and never exhales a septic odor. It under- 
goes a slow metamorphosis through its contained cells and 
granules into a purulent liquid, which is absorbed with equal 
tardiness. The liquefactive metamorphosis commences at 
the surface, separating the dead mass from the sac, so that 
it appears for the future as a great solid nucleus floating in 
a variable amount of purulent fluid. When large masses are 
encysted in this way it may be over a year before the whole 
has been liquefied and removed, and not unfrequently after 
nine months the outline of lobules, air-tubes, blood-vessels, 
and nerves can still be traced with ease in the necrosed lung. 
The important bearing of this is related to the lack of all 
putrefaction or other important changes in the mass of ne- 
crosed lung, which, in the absence of such metamorphosis, 
remains an encysted mass of infecting material so long as it 
continues solid and unchanged. To the average mind — and 
even to the medical one who has made no special study of 



— 68 — 

this disease — the danger even of infection seems past when 
the patient has for some time resumed its appetite, rumina- 
tion, milking, natural breathing, and, above all, its disposi- 
tion to lay on fat. Yet the majority of patients that have 
apparently recovered carry within their chests the encysted 
necrosed masses above described ; and so long as these 
remain they cannot be considered otherwise than as exceed- 
ingly dangerous to other stock. It is true that the bearers 
of these encysted masses will often stand for months beside 
other cattle without infecting them ; but it is none the less 
true that each bears within its chest a sealed-up store of 
infection, and there is only wanted a breach or change in 
the surrounding fibrous envelope to allow the deadly virus 
to escape. 

Instances of Infection from Encysted Necrosed Luna. — 
Charles Reeves, Success, Suffolk Co., N. Y., bought two 
calves from the infected Isaac Billard herd about January, 
1879. They did badly. In June he lost several animals in- 
fected from these, and on July 19 I visited his place and 
found a cow, a steer, and a calf infected from the same 
source. 

George Patrick, Patterson, Putnam Co., purchased a cow 
in February, 18*79, which sickened in April, but recovered. 
Others died in June, July, and August. On Sept. 15 I found 
four sick and had them disposed of ; and Oct. 15, when the 
whole herd was slaughtered, the cow that had recovered in 
April was found to carry still a solid encysted mass as large 
as an egg. This is more interesting as showing the long re- 
tention of the encapsuled mass, even after a very mild case, 
than as positive proof of the infection from this source. 

II. Braun, Lorimer St., Brooklyn, had a yearling heifer 
that, had been kept in the Blissville distillery stables prior to 
their quarantine in Feb., L879. Her infection, therefore, 
dated back to January. July 26 he applied for a per- 
mit to send this heifer to the country, but on examina- 
tion she was found to carry a large mass of encysted lung. 
She was sent to the slaughter-house, being in line condition, 



— 69 — 

and a large encysted mass was found as expected. On 
August 22 a fine Shorthorn cow that had been sent from a 
healthy district through our inspection yards direct to 
Braun's stable was found very ill with Lung Plague, and 
had to be slaughtered. 

In place of furnishing further cases of my own it may be 
well to quote one from another source confirmatory of mine. 

In the Mecueil de Medecine Veterinaire, March, 1879, M. 
Rabotiam records the case of an ox supposed to have chronic 
bronchitis, and brought from a stable where Lung Plague 
formerly prevailed, transmitting the disease to the healthy 
stock of his purchaser. 

The dangers from animals bearing these encysted masses 
are hardly less than from those still in the incubative stage 
of the disease. Be it understood that many cattle that bear 
such masses have natural pulse, temperature, and breathing, 
will lay on flesh, or yield as many as fifteen quarts of milk 
per day ; and it can be easily perceived how such animals 
will change hands, and pass into fresh and susceptible herds 
without any consciousness of wrong on the part of either 
buyer or seller. Such animals may any day carry infection 
from State to State, or from the infected States to our un- 
fenced Territories, where, owing to the constant commin- 
gling of herds, it will be impossible to eradicate the virus. 
Many such cases can with difficulty be detected even by the 
most carefully conducted professional examination ; much 
less are they likely to be recognized in the hurried examina- 
tions that can be given to a large number of animals at a 
frontier. In short, these chronic cases with encysted ne- 
crosed lung and the long period of incubation of the Lung 
Plague condemn absolutely the passage of animals on a mere 
examination and without the attendant quarantine of three 
months. Cattle for immediate slaughter may be passed 
under such precautions as shall prevent their contact with 
or proximity to store cattle ; but the passage of store cattle 
on examination only betrays the unfitness for his office of 
him who prescribes it. 



— 70 — 

The same considerations show the utter inadequacy of any 
measures that fail to reach every infected locality and every 
infected herd, and to prevent the shipment of any cattle 
from any infected district. 

To have suppressive measures effectual, either there must 
be a central controlling Federal authority that will grapple 
intelligently with the plague in every State, district, and 
herd simultaneously, and thus prevent its spread ; or every 
State bordering on an infected one, or having maritime com- 
mercial relations with it, must impose a three months' quar- 
antine on all cattle from such infected State. The folly of 
the present system is stupendous, and the common markets 
for store and fat cattle from infected and healthy districts, 
the passage of animals from an infected State on a simple 
examination, and the threats of one class of officials of forc- 
ing upon their neighbors the stock from their infected ter- 
ritory furnish a spectacle that is a disgrace to the intelli- 
gence and science of the nineteenth century, and a travesty 
on all national sanitation. 

Vai.uk of Fumigations with Sulphurous Acid. — As a 
disinfectant for Lung Plague no better agent exists than 
sulphurous acid, produced by burning flowers of sulphur in 
the contaminated building. But the value of this agent is 
perhaps even greater as a prophylactic agent for cattle that 
have been exposed to the contagion. I shall quote but three 
illustrative cases, and refer the reader for further evidence 
to my Report for 1879. 

Timothy Ryan, Ridgewood, L. I., kept on an average 
twenty-five cows, and had lost twenty head within the year. 
The stables were so thoroughly saturated with infecting 
materials that our own inspectors and eminent veterinarians 
from a distance concluded that it would be impossible to 
disinfect the premises. The wooden flooring was replaced 
by new, a quantity of filth was removed from beneath, the 
soil was sprinkled with quicklime, and the building white- 
washed with chloride of lime. Whitewashing had been 
resorted to before, but with no good result. On June 15, 



— 71 — 

1879, he commenced fumigating the cows twice daily with 
sulphurous acid, and, although he had some fresh and sus- 
ceptihle cows in the stable, not one more contracted the 
plague. 

Patrick Green, West Farms, New York Co., entered in- 
fected premises in April, and by July had lost by the plague 
twelve out of a herd of thirty -two head. After the sickness 
appeared the cattle were kept at pasture to avoid the in- 
fected buildings and secure pure air ; but as the plague con- 
tinued, I now directed him to turn the herd into the build- 
ings for half an hour twice a day, and make them breathe 
as much sulphur smoke as they could bear without violent 
coughing. From that time not one more case of the plague 
developed. 

James Cowan, Yonkers, in April, 1879, bought a cow from 
Hog Hill, which infected his herd. By July 12 he had lost 
eight out of a herd of twenty-three, notwithstanding that 
they were kept in the open field and fed tonics (including 
sulphate of iron). I now enjoined him to turn them into the 
stables twice daily, and fumigate for half an hour each time 
with sulphurous acid. This was done, and not another case 
of sickness occurred. 

A wide experience enables me to place a high value on 
this measure as an auxiliary to the slaughter of the sick and 
the purification of the premises by aqueous disinfectants. 
To its proper application certain conditions are indispensa- 
ble : 1. All virulent matters in the buildings, drains, manure 
heaps, etc., must be destroyed. 2. No animal with manifest 
disease must be retained in the herd, nor have access to it or 
its pasturage. Chronic cases with necrosed encysted lungs 
must be removed, as well as the acutely diseased. 3. The 
attendants should not be allowed near diseased animals. 4. 
The buildings must be close enough to confine the fumes of 
sulphurous acid so that it may be breathed of sufficient 
strength for half an hour in succession each time. 5. The 
administrator must be intelligent and reliable, and must 
shut himself in with the animals, so that he may watch the 



— 72 — 

result and push the production of the gas as far as the ani- 
mals can breathe without irritation, and at the same time be 
ready to open doors and windows and admit the air prompt- 
ly in case of an overdose. 

Suppression of Lung Plague on the Large Common 
Pasture of Montauk. — On May 7, 1879, while on a visit 
to infected herds in Suffolk Co. I learned that some yearlings 
from the same held that had infected the county had been 
turned out on the great pasture of Montauk, a stretch of 
12,000 acres at the east end of Long Island, on which were 
1,100 head of cattle, the property of about 200 owners. As 
the yearlings from the infected herd were alleged to be 
sound we had no power to act until the passage of a bill 
then pending, which empowered us to deal with animals 
that had been exposed to infection. On May 21 and 22 
twenty head of cattle — all that could be traced to the in- 
fecting herd or to herds with which cattle from the infect- 
ing one had mingled — were killed, about half of those that 
were opened showing the disease in the chronic form. Two 
more cases of sickness occurred on the range on duly 15 and 
August 10 respectively, both in cattle that had had commu- 
nication with the infecting herd, though this information 
had been withheld at the earlier slaughter. Aside from 
them the whole herd had escaped. The reasons of our 
unprecedented success in Montauk are manifestly these : 
1. The Montauk pasture was large enough to allow ten acres 
to every animal. 2. The cattle belonged to many different 
owners, in lots of from one to fifty head. The cattle of dif- 
ferent owners, being strange to each other, herded widely 
apart, so that there was virtually no chance of infection 
from the herd of one owner to that of another. 3. They 
were never yarded nor turned into buildings en masse, so as 
to concentrate the virus. 4. 'There was no meeting at any 
common watering place, for ponds abound all over the 
range. 5. Whenever a herd was known to have had any 
communication with cattle from the infected herd, such 
herd was slaughtered without exception. 0. The two cattle 



— 73 — 

that suffered later in the season were the only cattle from 
their respective owners, and had never herded with any- 
other stock on the range. 

Had these cattle been crowded more closely on a smaller 
pasture ; had they pastured successively on the same ground ; 
had they been frequently rounded up, yarded, or stabled ; 
had they all been watered from a common pond or trough ; 
had they been accustomed to meet to eat grain or salt from 
troughs ; or had they become acquainted so as to congregate 
at night in one vast herd, as occurs on Montauk later in the 
season, it would have been impossible to prevent infection. 
The prevalence of this plague for ages on the unfenced 
steppes of the Old World, and for decades on the open 
ranges of South Africa and Australia, in defiance of all the 
efforts of owners and governments, shows only too clearly 
that in all but very exceptional conditions the advent of 
this plague to such unfenced territory means its spread and 
permanent prevalence in such a district. It is but repeating 
on a large scale what has for thirty-seven years preserved 
and extended the infection on our own eastern seaboard, 
and what must continue to maintain it until common pastur- 
age is abolished. Our Montauk triumph gives no hope of 
the extermination of the plague from our great grazing 
lands in case they should become infected, so that the immi- 
nent risk of infecting these means the risk of imposing a 
perpetual annual tax on the nation of $60,000,000 and up- 
ward. 

Results of One Year's Labor. — In the course of the 
year we have caused the slaughter of 1,400 cattle that had 
either developed the Lung Plague or had been exposal to 
its infection ; we have abolished common pasturages in all 
infected districts excepting one (Brooklyn, where circum- 
stances prevented this) ; we have controlled the movement 
of cattle in all infected districts, and have virtually rooted 
out the plague from seven counties, leaving but one (Brook- 
lyn and suburbs) in which the affection still prevails. 

While a multitude of details were needful for each dis- 

6 



— 74 — 

trict, it will be instructive to notice the main restrictions in 
force in New York city, where the disease was suppressed, 
as compared with Brooklyn, where it still remains to be 
dealt with. 

By July 1, 1879, we had perfected arrangements to receive 
fresh cows and other store cattle, from healthy districts only, 
into new inspection yards from which all other stock were 
excluded, and to allow no other animals to be distributed as 
store cattle in or from New York. Pasturage was allowed 
in inclosed ground only where herd would be safely secluded 
from herd. The police seconded our efforts, so that no cat- 
tle could be moved on the streets without a special permit, 
gi anted after inspection of the herd to which such belonged. 
Dealers 1 stables, which in such localities soon become simple 
pest-houses, were abolished; no cows were allowed to leave 
city stables except for slaughter ; and, as the fountain of in- 
fection was thereby stopped, every subsequent step made in 
dealing with disease in individual herds was a decided and 
permanent gain. New infections were exceedingly rare, 
and the old ones only had to be stamped out. With such 
measures success was assured. 

I urged strongly that Brooklyn should be put under a 
similar system ; and had this been resorted to there can be no 
doubt that the results would have been similar in that city, 
and that the State of New York would have been to-day prac- 
tically free from Lung Plague. But the prospective lack of 
means, the existing opposition of the city magnates and mag- 
istrates, and other considerations which need not be men- 
tioned here stood in the way. The adoption of the approved 
measures was deferred until there should be less to hinder; 
and, although money has at last been appropriated by the 
Legislature, three months have elapsed without any satisfac- 
tory movement in this direction. With regard to this it need 
only be said that any ostensible economy that entails delay 
in the extinction of the disease is the most wasteful prodi- 
gality. The perpetuation of a force of officials and inspect- 
ors becomes much more expensive than the execution of the 



— 75 — 

work in a sharp and decisive manner and in a much shorter 
period of time ; the maintenance of the plague in the in- 
fected district leads to a continuous and, in the end, a far 
greater outlay in indemnities for cattle slaughtered ; the 
continued interference with the normal channels of home 
trade heightens the burden in a way that cannot easily be 
estimated ; the persistence of the plague loses to the nation 
$1,500,000 a year on our exports to England ; and, finally, 
every day of delay endangers the infection of the Middle 
States and of the Western and Southern grazing ground, 
which would perpetuate the plague forever, and entail an 
annual tax equal to that imposed by the late war. 

Already we see the evil effects of a relaxation of efficient 
work in other parts of New York than Brooklyn. When 
the appropriation was made in February I at once took 
measures to increase the veterinary staff and actively resume 
the aggressive work that had been so long and injuriously 
delayed. But orders were received to reduce the force of 
inspectors still further, and at the same time the system of 
distributing fresh cows and other store cattle from the in- 
spection yards only was seriously relaxed ; and though there 
is as yet little time for more than the incubation of the 
plague, cases have appeared in fresh cows taken into sound 
stables in New York and Brooklyn, and Staten Island, which 
has been sound for over a year, has again become extensive- 
ly diseased. 



— 76 — 

XIII. 

FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH VARIOUS CROPS. 



By Prof. I. P. Roberts. 



A. 

Experiments with Wheat. — All quantities given, whether 
of manure, seed, or crop, are given for the acre, unless other- 
wise specified. 

I. 

Wheat — Different Fertilizers. 1874-5. — Plots 1 acre in 
size. 



Treatment. 



16 tons farmyard manure, moderately well rotted, applied 

on surface and harrowed in 

100 bushels lime ashes from lime-kiln, applied on surface ; 

cost 15 cents per bushel 

200 pounds Ralston's superphosphate, drilled with wheat. . . 
200 pounds Woodruff & Chamberlain's superphosphate, 

drilled with wheat 

Nothing 

200 pounds Phillips's improved superphosphate, drilled with 

wheat 



Yield. 
Pounds. 



561.5 
603 



648.5 
441.5 



The season was poor and the winter severe, and many 
pieces of wheat were plowed up. The soil was clayey ; the 
clover and timothy sod was plowed in July ; the seed (Claw- 
son) was drilled September 8 and 9. Land in fine order. 
All the plots were sowed to timothy a few days after the 
wheat was sowed. The great injury to wheat which oc- 
curred in March permitted the timothy to make a very rank 
growth, especially on plot No. 1, where farm manures were 
applied ; from this fact the yield of No. 1 was diminished 
far more than that of any other. The increased growth of 
the grass on this plot over the others was very noticeable 
the next year. 

II. 

Wheat by the Lois- Weedon System. 1874. — This experi- 
ment was tried on a field of clayey land, which in 1873 pro- 



— 77 — 

duced oats, without manure, and in 1872 and for several 
years previous was a blue-grass pasture, and considered 
very poor ; it was in a bad, lumpy condition after the oat 
crop of 1873. It was summer fallowed in 1874, and not 
manured. 

The plot, 20§ rods long, was cut up into strips 5% feet 
broad, which were numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. The odd strips 
were drilled and the even strips cultivated ; the follow- 
ing year, as 'will be seen further on, the even strips 
were sowed, and odd strips cultivated. The ground was 
was in good condition when sowed with Clawson wheat at 
the rate of two bushels. These experiments were conducted 
with a view to ascertaining the effect of superior culture 
without manures on poor lands. By this alternate method 
each plot was under summer fallow every alternate year. 

Yield First year, 1874-5, season poor, 158 lbs. 

" Seoond " 1875-6, " fair, 369 lbs. 

" Third " 1876-7, " superior, 694lbs. 

" Fourth " 1877-8, " fair, 637 lbs. 

No wheat was sown on these plots in the fall of 1878 ; in 
the summer of 1879 all plots were given a thorough sum- 
mer fallow ; the odd numbers are now in wheat. 



III. 

Wheat — Different Methods of Seeding. 
soil, etc., were the same as in I. 





Treatment. 


Yield. 






bu. lbs. 


1 


Drilled, 2 bushels, 


24 55 


2 


Broadcast, 2 bushels, 


22 30 


3 


Drilled, 3.5 bushels, 


20 50 


4 


« 3 ,. 


20 50 


5 


2.5 " 


16 30 


6 


" 2 


11 30 


7 


" 1.5 " 


4 5 


8 


" 1 " 


— — 


9 


" .5 " 


— — 



1874-5.— The 



Plot No. 1 was nearest to, and plot No. 9 farthest from, 
a north and south fence ; as the distance from the fence in- 
creased, the exposure to high winds increased. Therefore 
they shoidd be compared by couplets or triplets, rather than 
by extreme numbers. The plots were 0.1 of an acre each. 



— 78 



IV. 



Wheat — Different Methods of Seeding and Manuring. 
1875-6. The field and arrangement of plots were the same 
as in III, except that the numbers were reversed, and the 
thin seeding was next to the fence. 



Treatment. 



Drilled, 2 bushels, 2 bushels plaster. 



2 

2 

" 2 

3 

2.25 
2 

Broadcast, 2 bushels, 
Drilled, 1.5 " 
1 



no fertilizer. 



200 pounds superphosphate 



Yield. 



bu. lbs. 



•ill 


W 


18 


10 


•>■■'. 


30 


28 


'20 


21 


15 


•v 





IB 


30 


23 


,-,i) 



* Protected by fence and snow. 



Germinating Power of Old Wheat. 1874. — Two hundred 
varieties from the museum, which had been five years from 
England, were sowed and all failed to germinate. These 
varieties had been kept unthreshed in the museum under 
the most favorable circumstances. 



VI. 



Wheat — Different Methods of Seeding or Culture, Differ- 
ent Manuring and Varieties. 1876-7. — Plots 0.1 of an 
acre. The field was the same as in IV. Every other drill 
mark in plot No. 1 was hoed out, leaving the drills sixteen 
inches apart, and really but one bushel per acre of seed. 
Three hoeings in all were given to this plot. The quality 
of plot 13 was not nearly so good as of 14. The ground 
was plowed twice after the previous crop of wheat, with 
liberal top-culture. 



— 79 — 



Treatment. 



bushels, drilled, hoed 

plastered Sept. 6, 300 lbs 

Stockbridge fertilizer, 270 lbs. 

nothing 

superphosphate, 355 lbs 

nothing 



i.-j- 



broadcast 

mulched with straw 

new variety from Cayuga Co.; donor unknown . 
Clawson 



Yield. 


bu. 


lbs. 


24 


20 


26 


5 


28 


50 


28 




25 


40 


24 


10 


18 


10 


24 


30 


25 


30 


24 


45 


25 




26 




24 


20 



VII. 

Wheat — Different Methods of Seeding or Culture, Differ- 
ent Manuring or Varieties. 1877-8. — Plots -^ ot " illi acre. 
The ground was clayey and had been in wheat the three 
preceding years. Plots 4, 5 and 6 were left without manure' 
for the purpose of testing the uniformity of the soil. Plots 
whose numbers and yield are not given were discarded. 



Treatment. 



9 pecks, 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

Selected 



5 pecks, 
9 " 
9 " 



no fertilizer 

400 pounds Lister ground bone 

400 pounds Crocker's Buffalo superphosphate 
no fertilizer 

subsoiled, no fertilizer 

400 pounds plaster 

400 pounds Preston's superphosphate 

no fertilizer 

400 pounds Sol. Pacific guano phosphate 

no fertilizer 

seed, i ooo pounds Sol. ) 

" s Pacific guano [■ 

" ( phosphate. ) 

no fertilizer 

broadcast 

drilled 



Yield. 



bu. 


lbs. 


28 


02 ; 


29 


52 


31 


52 


22 


48 


21 


36 


22 


16 


16 


32 


24 


40 


22 




30 


24 


24 


40 


23 


52 


29 


30; ; 


21 


12 


22 




24 


24 



VIII. 



Wheat — Different Fertilizers and Methods of Culture. 
1878-9. — Plots -g 1 ^ of an acre. Seed was sown at the rate of 
two bushels per acre, unless otherwise designated, except in 
plot 30, which was actually seeded at the rate of one bushel, 
as half of the drills were hoed out. 



— 80 — 



Treatment. 



Yield. 



1.5 bushels of seed, no manure 

3 " " " 

.75 " " " 

2 " " " 

1.75 " " " 

500 pounds soluble Pacific guano 

Nothing 

500 pounds White & Son's superphosphate 

Nothing 

500 pounds Poplein's silicated phosphate 

4 bushels of plaster 

Nothing 

New variety 

800 pounds soluble Pacific guano 

Nothing 

800 pounds Poplein's silicated phosphate 

800 pounds soluble Pacific guano and 800 pounds White's 
superphosphate 

14 loads farm manure, 4 plots together 

400 pounds salt, 2 plots together 

80 bushels lime 

400 pounds sulphate of ammonia, applied in fall 

Nothing 

40(i pounds sulphate of ammonia, applied in spring 

400 pounds Pacific guano, 400 pounds sulphate of ammonia, 
applied in fall, and 400 pounds sulphate of ammouia, ap- 
plied In spring 

400 pounds sulphate of ammonia, applied in fall 

400 " " " " spring 

Drilled double width and hoed 



I'll. 


ilis. 


is 


20 


20 


;,o 


19 


10 


20 




20 




25 




21 


40 


30 




15 


50 


19 


35 


22 


5 


25 




23 


20 


25 


25 


25 




21 


40 


:'A 


in 


21 


40 


20 


15 


20 


25 


22 


5 


19 


35 


is 


20 



17 30 
13 20 



IX. 

Wheat — Summary of Results. — 

Drilled and Broadcast Sowing:. 





Drilled. 


Broadcast. 


1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 


bu. lbs. 

24 55 
21 

25 30 
24 24 


bu. lbs. 

23 30 
18 30 

24 45 
22 


Average, 


23 56 % 


21 56 % 



Thick and Thin Seeding. 

bu. lbs. 

1 year, 3% bushels, 20 50 

4 years, 3 " 23 23% 

4 " 2 " 20 15 

2 " •*% and 1% bushels 18 22% 

3 " 2 years 1 % bushels and 1 year 1 y t bushels 15 25 

l " y x bushel (protected by fence and snow, hence 

cannot be fairly compared with others) 25 



— 81 — 

Comparison of all plots phosphated for four years with 
adjoining plots on which no fertilizers were used. 

bu. lbs. 

Average of all phosphated plots 21 31% 

" " adjoining unfertilized plots 22 33 

Phosphates do not seem to produce marked results on 
pine and hemlock lands of drift formation ; results upon 
similar soils in other localities sustain us in this inference 
from our experiments. On maple and beech lands of a dif- 
ferent formation they have produced marked results. 

Comparison of plots plastered for three years with ad- 
joining plots unplastered. 

bu. lbs. 

Plastered, average 24 33% 

Not plastered, average 23 41% 

Comparison of plots hoed for two years with adjoining 

plots not hoed. 

bu. lbs. 

Hoed 18 50 

Not hoed 23 10 

It must be remembered that while the plots were of the 
same size, there were twice as many drill marks in the plots 
not hoed as in the hoed, and consequently twice as much 
seed upon these plots. 



B. 

Experiments with Oats. — All quantities specified relate to 
the acre. 



I. 



Oats — Different Methods of Culture. 1875. — The land 
was clayey and had been in clover and timothy in 1873 and 
in corn in 1874. The ground was mellow and in good con- 
dition when sowed with common white oats, May 1, 1875. 
Plots were oV of an acre. 



— 82 



Treatment. 



Broadcast, spring plowed. 
Drilled, 



" tall plowed, replowed April 30 

" " cultivated with Western Cultivat 

or April 30 

Drilled, spring plowed 

" not plowed, surface cultivated twice 

" plowed and subsoiled, May 1 

" plowed 5 inches deep, April 30 

" plowed 9 inches deep, April 30 

" spring plowed, sowed May 1 

fall " " " 



No. 






pks. 


Yield. 


seed. 








bu. 


lbs 


12 


60 


18 


16 


58 


14 


12 


53 


21 


7 


47 


26 


5 


54 


6 


12 


52 


19 


12 


54 


6 


12 


54 


6 


12 


56 


10 


12 


58 


14 


12 


66 


30 


12 


60 


18 


12 


41 


14 


12 


30 


26 



The straw on plot 14 was larger and the berry plumper 
and larger than in plot No. 13. These two plots did not 
adjoin the others ; the soil was a poor clay. 



II. 



Oats — Different Methods <>f Culture, Seeding and Fertil- 
izing. 18*76. — Plots oV of an acre. 



Treatment. 



Drill culture 

Broadcast 

Unrolled 

Rolled 

Plastered 

Not plastered. . 
">o bushels lime. 
•20(1 pounds salt. 
Not salted 



408 pounds salt 

COO " " 

Hoed three times, every alternate 

drill- mark vacant 

Not hoed 





Pecks 




Variety of Oats. 


of 

seed. 


Yield. 






bu. lbs. 


Ovid 


12 


54 


,i 


12 


63 


" 


12 


58 16 




12 


55 4 




12 


53 8 


" 


12 


46 16 


" 


12 


50 8 


" 


12 


52 16 


" 


12 


44 8 


" 


16 


40 16 


" 


10 


36 24 


" 


8 


36 24 


" 


14 


42 


Univ. White, 


14 


40 16 


Waterloo White. 


14 


46 28 


Ov. & W'loo m'x'd 


12 


41 20 


Ovid 


12 


48 12 


.. 


12 


37 28 


" 


12 


37 16 



The University White were ripe .Inly 20 ; the Waterloo 
White, July 24 ; the Ovid, August 4. Plot No. 18 really 
had but six peeks per acre, as one-half of the drills were 
hoed out. 



— 83 — 



III. 



Oats — Different Fertilizers, Varieties of Seed, or Different 
Cultivation. 1877. — Plots were ^ - of an acre. The ground 
was clayey and in fine condition. 

Three bushels of seed per acre were sown, unless otherwise 
stated ; the seed was put in early, but drilled in too deeply; 
heavy, cold rains fell in a few days, the ground ran together 
and baked ; probably not more than one-half of the plants 
appeared above ground. Plots 13 and 14 were in another 
field, and sowed under more favorable conditions, except 
that the soil was much poorer. 



Treatment. 



Yield. 



400 pounds of Lister Bro's' superphosphate of lime — 

400 " " " ground bone 

400 " of Crofut & Co.'s Syracuse superphosphate 

Nothing 

400 pounds of Stockhrldge oat manure 

400 " refuse salt 

Nothing 

400 pounds of Cayuga plaster 

Seneca Falls seed, 3 bushels 

Cornell University seed, 4 bushels 

" 2 " 

" " 3 " 

Subsoiled 

Not subsoiled 



bu. 


lbs 


42 


ii 


■37 


31 


39 


7 


34 


7 


35 


15 


31 


23 


28 


19 


26 


23 


12 


6 


35 


15 


22 


11 


33 


i 


38 


6 



34 14 



IV. 



Oats — Different Fertilizers. 1879. 
in size. 



-Plots ^ - of an acre 



Treatment. 



500 lbs. Pacific guano phosphate and 250 lbs. sulphate 

of ammonia 

No fertilizer 

750 lbs. plaster and 75 lbs. refuse salt 

No fertilizer 

" harrowed when about 2 inches high 

130 lbs. sulphate of ammonia and 260 lbs. Pacific guano 

phowphate 

No fertilizer 



P'cke 

of 
seed 



Yield. 



bu. lbs. 

41 8 

38 29 

25 25 
22 21 

22 6 
17 6 

26 28 
25 20 
37 16 

39 12 

23 14 
17 26 



— 84 — 

Nos. 1 and 2 on ground in roots the previous year. Nos. 
3 to 6 inclusive in oats the previous year. Nos. 7 to 12 in- 
clusive were in corn in 1878. Nos. 11 and 12 did not 
adjoin the others. In studying the table, comparison should 
be made between plots situated near together, as 1 and 3 or 
7 and 10, and not between those situated far apart, as 2 
and 11. 



Oats — Summary of Results. — 

Averages of Thick and Thin Seeding for Four Years. 

bu. lbs. 

5 pecks per acre 39 29 

7 and 8 pecks per acre 41 25 

12 " " 42 20 

16 " " 42 31 

bu. lbs. 
Two years' average of all plots treated with commercial fertilizers. . . 35 2 
Two years' average of unmanured plots 30 4% 

bu. lbs. 

Broadoast, 2 years 61 16 

Drilled, 2 " 56 

bu. lbs. 

Subsoiled, 2 years 46 19 

Not subsoiled, 2 years 48 33 

bu. lbs. 

Bait, 2 years, 4 plots 43 18 

Not salted, 2 years, 4 plots 39 7 

bu. lbs. 

Plastered, 2 years, 2 plots 40 

Not plastered, 2 years, 2 plots 37 19>£ 

The results of experiments conducted but one year appear 
in the previous tables, and a recapitulation would add noth- 
ing to their clearness. 

Phosphates, including application, cost on an average 
about $40 per ton ; plaster, $5 ; salt (refuse), $4.50 ; lime, 
$8.75. Our experiments and observation lead us to believe 
that oats drilled early on mellow, clay land, and especially 
if followed by heavy, cold rains, do not germinate so well 
as when sowed broadcast. Our drill is the "Farmer's 
Favorite." 



— 85 — 



c. 



Experiments with Corn. — All quantities, unless otherwise 
designated, relate to the acre, and as to the crop relate to 
bushels and pounds of ears, seventy pounds of ears being 
allowed to the bushel. All plots were separated by one 
vacant row. All manures, unless otherwise stated, were 
dropped in the hill and mixed with the soil. 



1. 



Corn — Different Culture, Liming, Snckering. 1875. — 
Plots 1 to 13 inclusive were planted with Eastern, 8-rowed, 
yellow corn. In 1874 the ground was in corn, without 
manure, and in 1872 and 1873 in clover and timothy. The 
soil was a sandy loam. 



Treatment. 



Ridge culture 

Deep " 

Shallow " 

Continuous culture, 7 times... 
Drilled culture, 1 stalk per foot 

5 stalks in a hill 

4 stalks in a hill 

3 stalks in a hill 

2 stalks in a hill 

Not limed, eastern variety 

Limed, 200 bushels per acre 

Not suckered 

Suckered twice 

Not limed, western variety 

200 bu. lime, western variety . . 



Yield lbs. per 




plot. 


Yield. 


Sound. 


Soft. 






bu. lbs. 


352 


55 


58 10 


290 


1954 


44 15 


324 


43^ 


52 35 


362 


22 


54 60 


365^ 


18 


54 55 


369 


29 


56 60 


438 


44 


68 60 


301 % 


127 


61 15 


266 


49 


45 


335 


51 


55 10 


493 


57 


78 40 


338 


50 


55 30 


306 


42 


49 50 


not ful 


y ripe. 


48 55 
77 60 



II. 



Corn — Different /Seeding, Culture, and Manuring. 18 70. — 
The soil was very sandy and gravelly, and suffered from 
drouth. Four stalks were left in each hill, unless otherwise 
specified ; the hills were 3.5 feet apart, both ways. The 
<;orn was cultivated four times and hoed once. 



— 86 — 



Treatment. 



5 stalks per bill 

1 '• " 

3 " " 

2 " " 

2 spoonfuls plaster to hill applied June 5, corn coming up. 

Not plastered 

Suckered 

Not suckered 

Seed soaked two hours in hot water and rolled in plaster. . . 
Seed from tips of ears 

" butts of ears 

" middle of ears 

500 pounds Ralston's superphosphate 

500 " Peterson & Son's superphosphate 

Nothing 

500 pounds Bradley's superphosphate 

Plaster applied June 5 

Ashes, 2 spoonfuls per hill, June 5 

5 stalks per hill 

4 " " 

3 " " 

2 " " 

2 spoonfuls plaster, June 5 

Not plastered 

Seed soaked 12 hours and rolled in plaster 

Suckered 

Not suckered 

Seed from tips of ears 

' ' butts of ears 

2 spoonfuls ashes, June 5 

2 " plaster and ashes, June 5 

Peterson & Son's superphosphate, same as 14 

Nothing 

Bradley's superphosphate, same as 16 

Nothing 

Ralston's superphosphate, same as 13 

Cayuga plaster, applied in hill, unsoaked seed 

Syracuse " " on hill, June 5 

" " in hill, unsoaked seed 

Western corn, no fertilizer 



Yield. 



bu. 


lbs 


41 


40 


42 


20 


42 


20 


:!4 


20 


39 


30 


:;i; 


40 


38 


CO 


39 


10 


41 


:,o 


ill 


30 


29 


10 


33 


10 


38 


20 


34 


20 


35 


30 


:i7 


10 


28 


■in 


38 


20 


:;s 


60 


34 


60 


32 


40 


29 


L0 


35 


30 


29 


50 


40 


40 


28 


40 


33 


;.o 


38 


20 


■in 


40 


38 


50 


37 


50 


34 


20 


34 


20 


36 


40 


33 


50 


3 4 


GO 


:-;:< 


18 


36 




30 


f.O 


34 


CO 



Many of the preceding plots are duplicates, in order to 
make allowance for variation in soil. 

Average <>t' duplicates. 



Plots and Treatment. 



Nos. 1 and 19, 5 stalks 

" 2 and 24, 4 •' 

" 3 and 21, 3 " 

" 4 and 22. 2 " 

" 5, 23 and 17, plaster on hill 

" 6 and 24, no plaster 

•' 7 and 20, suckered 

" s and 27, not suckered 

" 9 and 25, seed soaked and rolled in plaster 

" 10 and 28, seed from tips 

" 11 and 29, " '• butts 

" 12, " " middle 

" 13 and 30, Ralston's superphosphate 

" 14 and 32, Peterson & Son's superphosphate 

" 16 and 34, Bi'adley's superphosphate 

" 18 and 30, ashes 

" 2,8,15,24,27,38,35, nothing 



Yield. 



bu. 


lbs 


40 




38 


41 


37 


30 


31 


50 


34 


23 


33 


10 


33 


50 


36 


30 


41 


16 


34 


CO 


34 


CO 


33 


10 


36 


40 


34 


20 


36 


CO 


38 


40 


35 


33 



— 87 — 
III. 

Corn — Stockbridge Fertilizer. 1 s76. — The soil was clayey. 
In 1873 the land produced wheat, no manure being used, 
and in 1874 clover and timothy, mowed for hay in June 
and for seed in September ; in 1875 it was mowed for hay 
twice. It was plowed in September, 1875, and replowed 
May 23, 1876. 

A plot, numbered 2, of .25 of an acre, received a dressing 
of 180 pounds of Stockbridge corn manure, said to contain 
16 pounds of nitrogen, 19.5 pounds of potash, 7.75 pounds of 
soluble phosphoric acid, and costing -$6.25 ; it was claimed 
that this quantity applied to a quarter of an acre would pro- 
duce 12.5 bushels more than the natural yield. On the two 
sides of this plot were plots of one-eighth of an acre, num- 
bered 1 and 3, which were unfertilized. 

The fertilizer was sowed broadcast after plowing, and 
harrowed three times before planting. Plot No. 2 contained 
1,102 hills, and yielded 1,070.5 pounds of corn in the ear, all 
of which was good and sound. Plots Nos. 1 and 3 con- 
tained the same number of hills, were planted, husked and 
weighed at the same time as No. 2, and weighed 1,071.25 
pounds. This also was sound, but not of as good quality 
nor as highly colored as that of No. 2. The stalks on No. 
2 were perceptibly larger than on Nos. 1 and 3, and all 
through the season had a darker and more luxuriant color. 



IV. 

Corn — Different Fertilizers and Culture. 1876. — The 
land had been in clover and timothy for two years. The 
soil improved in quality in passing from plots 1 and 17 to 
the middle of the field. The " Vitative Compound " (plot 
12) was received in a 2 oz. package, with directions to dis- 
solve it in sufficient water for complete immersion of half a 
bushel of seed, and to soak the seed in this solution 36 to 
48 hours. On analysis the substance was found to consist 



88 — 



of lead oxide and zinc sulphate ; it was an evident fraud. 
The amounts of fertilizers refer to the plots. 



Treatment. 



25 pounds Stockbridge corn manure 

NothiiiR 

20 pounds soluble Pacific guano phosphate 

20 pounds Lister Brothers' ground bone 

20 " " " superphosphate 

Nothing 

20 pounds Crofut & Co.'s superphosphate 

Seed soaked 12 hours, rolled in plaster, 1 tablespoonf ul damp 

plaster in each hill 

20 pounds plaster sowed broadcast, harrowed in 

Nothing 

25 pounds 8tockbridge manure, broadcast, harrowed in 

Seed soaked in " Vitative Compound" 

Suckered 

Not suckered, 4 stalks (compare with 13 and 15) 

5 stalks 

a " 

2 " 



Yield. 



bu. 


lbs. 


25 


5 


31 


5 


40 


57 


48 


10 


56 


10 


59 


10 


58 


5 


53 


55 


60 


15 


51 


5 


46 


20 


45 


30 


51 


43 


48 




48 




53 


40 


47 


10 



Corn — Different Varieties. 1877. — The soil of the field 
was poorest at the extreme numbers, growing slightly better 
as it approached the center, and was a little too gravelly 
and light for best results. It had been in clover the pre- 
ceding year. The plots were one-fortieth of an acre each, 
and were separated from each other by three rows of po- 
tatoes. 



Treatment. 



8-rowed Yellow, Bates 

H -rowed One-Hundred-Day Corn 

8-rowed reddish tipped from Pennsylvania 

8 rowed Gold-drop 

Western corn acclimated two years 

s-rowed White Corn, Ayers 

8-rowed Yellow, planted with pumpkins every 3d hill 

8-rowed Yellow, no pumpkins 

8-rowed Cook's Yellow 

Western Hicks, acclimated four years 

8-rowed Yellow, Kates 

8-rowed One-Hundred-Day Corn 

8-rowed reddish tipped from Pennsylvania 

8-rowed Gold-drop 

Western, acclimated two years 

8-rowed White, Ayers 

8-rowed Cook's Yellow 

Western Hicks, acclimated four years 



Yield. 



bu. 


lbs 


36 


60 


36 


20 


41 


30 


34 


10 


36 


60 


54 


20 


38 


40 


45 




70 


30 


69 


50 


69 


10 


55 


30 


55 


10 


61 


30 


36 




38 


10 


54 


60 


33 


30 



— 89 



Average of duplicates. 



Plots and Kinds of Seed. 



STiel . 



Nos. i and 11, Bates seed 

" 2 and 12, One-Hundred-Day Corn 

" 3 and 13, Pennsylvania 

" 4 and 14, Gold-drop 

" 5 and 15, Western, acclimated two years. 

" 6 and 16, White, Ayers 

" 9 and 17, Cook's Yellow 

" 10 and 18. Western Hicks 



bu. lbs. 
53 

45 no 
48 20 
40 

3fi 30 

46 15 
62 45 
51 40 



VI. 

Corn — Different Varieties. 18*76. — These plots adjoined 
No. 3 ; the preparation of the ground and the culture were 
the same. Each plot contained three rows of forty hills 
each, and the ground had heen heavily manured during the 
previous winter. 





Treatment. 


Yield lbs. per 
plot. 


Yield. 


Sound. 


Soft. 


1 

■2 
3 
4 

5 
6 




141 
155 % 

130 

145% 

104 % 
131 


17 
97 
37 

17 
22 

11 
20 


bu. lbs. 
73 69 

81 28 

68 14 
76 23 

54 60 

(is ;,:; 


Maryland Yellow, from Washington, D. C. 
8 rowed reddish tipped from Pennsylvania. 

u <■ «< <« « but 

acclimated one year in New York 

8-rowed, Bates variety, South Hill, Ithaca.. 
One-Hundred-Day Holden Corn from Mc- 


White Ayers from West Hill, Ithaca 



The two years' experiments in varieties show marked re- 
sults. The Pennsylvania Red-tipped Corn produced by far 
the largest yield, and next to it the home-raised eight-rowed 
yellow. General field culture has proved the superiority of 
these same varieties over the others. The advantage of care 
in the selection of seed is thus demonstrated. 

VII. 

Corn — Different Combinations of Fertilizers. 1879. — 
These experiments were suggested by an article and diagram 
in the Rural New Yorker in the spring of 1879. 

The upper number indicates the number of the plot ; the 
second number, the number of pounds of corn in the ear; 
the third number, the number of pounds of stalks per plot. 

7 



— 90 



The ground was in wheat in 187V with manure, and in clover 
in 1878; the clover was mowed early (June 18), the ground 
plowed immediately and drilled to fodder corn. Clover and 
corn were both good. The corn ground was plowed May 
18 and planted May 24, although very dry. 

Each plot was entirely surrounded by a vacant row and 
contained thirty-five hills, planted thickly and reduced to 
four stalks in a hill. To understand the diagram, suppose 
numbers 57 to 03 inclusive to be a land containing five rows, 
upon which has been applied twenty pounds Pacific guano ; 
one vacant row left between it and the next land, upon which 
has been applied twenty pounds sulphate of ammonia. Sup- 
pose numbers 1 to 57 north and south to constitute another 
land, upon which has been applied 10 lbs. muriate of potash ; 
then No. 36 has had an application of 4" of 20 lbs. of sulphate 
of magnesia and ^ of K> lbs. of muriate of potash; while 
No. 1 has had ~ of 10 lbs. of muriate of potash, and No. 3 
has had no manure. 



d» 3g 



20 lbs. Pa- 
cific 
guaiio. 
20 lbs. sul 
I ill ate of 
ainmoiiia. 

Nothing. 

20 lbs. sul 
pliate of 

magnesia. 

Nothing. 

20 lbs. dis 
solved 

bone. 

20 lbs. mu 

riate of 

potash. 

20 lbs. sul 

phate of 

soda. 

Nothing. 



*.s 




© 


«3 


--2 












ao 










— | 

B C5 


tA 
a 
3 


. 3 


Ss 


35 * 

» a ° 


— q-i 


.o a 


— <M 


-'d2 



& s 



h3S 



57 


58 


59 


«o 


61 


62 


63 


49 


42 ! , 


41 


47 






44 


50 


4 5 


39 




! ;; 


50 


:;s' 


50 


51 


52 


53 


54 


->-> 


56 


58 ^ 






1 


4:; ', 


56 


373 


7:i' r 


52' 2 


I:;', 


44'; 


47', 


55', 


43 


4.5 


44 


45 


46 


47 


4S 


49 




44', 


58 


56 


51 










45 y 2 


44'i 




isi4 


39 y 2 


36 


3? 


3S 


39 


40 


41 


42 


41 


::o'. 


42' 


36 


36] 


41 


40' 


45', 

~2ir 






34 


:;<;', 


42 % 


35 ' 


30 


31 


33 


:i:i 


34 


35 




38 


48 


45 ' , 


48 


35 


36; 


44 




4i;'j 


. j; m. 


32 


25 


27' 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


4i y 2 


22 


35 


36 


34 


:;:; 


14 


44' 


29 


38 


31 


36% 




16 


15 


J4i 


17 


IS 


19 


20 


21 


411', 


:;4', 




IT', 


20 


30; 


11 


36 


41 




25 ' , 


26 


42 


22', 


8 


9 


io 


11 


12 


13 


14 




37 


32 


::.{', 


30" • 


:;:;>, 


29 


59 


43 


37 


39 


40', 


4(1 


35 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 




20 


33 


31 ! ■ 


27 


29 


263 


51 


32 


35 


::-' 


28 


;,:;'; 


291 



— 91 



It is evident that the complication of the system makes it 
impossible to draw any definite conclusions from the alm< >st 
endless combinations which can be made of the diagram. 



VIII. 

Corn — Summary of Results. — 

Comparison of all plots phosphated, for three years, with 

adjoining plots on which no fertilizers were used. 

bu. lbs. 

Phosphated, average 42 10 

No fertilizer 40 65 

Comparison of all plots plastered, for three years, with 

adjoining plots not plastered. 

bu. lbs. 

Plastered, average 45 3 

Not plastered, average 39 6 

Comparison of all plots suckered, for three years, with 

adjoining plots not suckered. 

bu. lbs. 

Suckered, average 46 51 

Not suckered, average 47 36 

Comparison of plots having various numbers of stalks per 

hill, for three years. 

bu. lbs. 

2 stalks per hill, average 42 10 

3 " " " 52 25 

4 " " '* 53 3 

5 " " " 48 46 

Comparison of the average of unfertilized plots which 

("/joined both phosphated and plastered plots with them ; 

and also a comparison of adjoining plastered and phosphated 

plots. 

bu, lbs. 

No fertilizer 40 l 

Phosphated 42 10 

Plastered. 45 



92 



Experiments with Grass. 



I). 



I. 



Grass — Different Fertilizers. 1876. — The crop consisted 
of clover and timothy in about equal proportions, and was 
out June 24. The soil was gravelly, inclining to a sandy 
loam. The plots were one square rod each, divided accu- 
rately by 2X4 scantling. The plaster used was from Cayu- 
ga beds unless otherwise designated. The results should be 
studied with regard to the yield of grass rather than hay, 
as the latter cannot be uniformly cured. The quantities of 
fertilizers relate to the acre, and of the crop to the plot. 



Treatment. 



y 2 bushel plaster 

1 " " 

1 " Syracuse plaster 

400 pounds refuse salt 

r>0 bushels lime 

50 bushels wood ashes 

Nothing 

3 bushels plaster, applied three separate times 

2 " Syracuse plaster 

Nothing 

200 bushels coal ashes 

100 " leached wood ashes 

2 " plaster 

2 " " applied at two separate times 

Nothing 

40 bushels fresh lime 

25 " lime and % bushel plaster 

1G% " " 16?3 bushels ashes and 1 bushel plaster. 



Grass. 


Hay. 


161 


96 


173 


97 K 


155 


94 >4 


149 


92 


156 


95 


171 


100 


133 


90 


150 


93 


152 


94 


140 


90 


146 


92 


164 


98 


155 


96 


148 


94 


139 


90 y 


121 


5 


128 


88 


132 


84 



n. 

( 'lover — Different Manures. 187 7. — Th ese plots contained 
an exact square rod, and were divided by laying down 2x4 
scantling, which were fastened together by strips of board 
nailed on top. The grass was mowed very close after the 
removal of the scantling, and immediately weighed ; for 
shrinkage in curing, see No. I, D. At the time of locating 
the plots they all appeared perfectly uniform. The second 
growth of clover on the plots treated with ground bone was 
relished very highly by the cattle, these plots being eaten 
close to the ground, while the clover on the others was still 
of a considerable height. 



93 



1 


12 


13 


iy 2 lbs. Syracuse 
phosphate. 


iy 2 lbs. Stockbridge 
manure. 


iy 2 lbs. Lister's phos- 
phate. 


117 lbs. clover. 


113 lbs. clover. 


113 lbs. clover. 


2 


11 


14 


1 l / 2 lbs. Lister's ground 
bone. 


Nothing. 


1 x /> lbs. Pacific guano 
phosphate. 


118 lbs. clover. 


130 lbs. clover. 


132 lbs. clover. 


3 


10 


15 


iy 2 lbs. Lister's super- 
phosphate. 


Nothing. 


1% lbs. Cayuga 
plaster. 


128 lbs. clover. 


129 lbs. clover. 


129 lbs. clover. 


4 


9 


16 


iy 2 lbs. Pacific guano 
phosphate. 


2% lbs. Lister's ground 
bone. 


iy 2 lbs. Syracuse 
plaster. 


125 lbs. clover. 


134 lbs. clover. 


129 lbs. clover. 


5 


8 


17 


Nothing. 


l l / 2 lbs. Cayuga 
plaster. 


1% lbs. Syracuse 
phosphate. 


115 lbs. clover. 


120 lbs. clover. 


116 lbs. clover. 


6 


7 


18 


iy 2 lbs. Stockbridge 
manure. 


1 l / 2 lbs. Syracuse 
plaster. 


Nothing. 


118 lbs. clover. 


122 lbs. clover. 


Ill lbs. clover 



Average of duplicates. 



Plots and Treatment. 



Fertiliz'r 
pounds. 



Yield per 
acre .screen 
clover, lbs. 



Nos. 1 and 17, Syracuse phosphate 

2 and 9, Lister's ground bone 

3 and 13, " superphosphate 

4 and 14, Pacific guano phosphate 
5, 10, 11 and 18, nothing 

6 and 12, Stockbridge manure 

8 and 15, Cayuga plaster 

7 and 16, Syracuse " 



\v&y 2 

126 
120] . 
128^ 
121 ^ 

115i, 

124 y 2 

125!4 



18,040 
20,160 
19.280 
20,560 
19,400 
18,480 
19,920 
20,080 



94 



III. 



Grass — Different Fertilizers. 1876-7. — One plot 4 rods 
by 5 was flanked on either side by a plot 4 by 2£ rods. The 
plots were divided by shallow trenches carefully cut to line. 
The grass consisted of timothy and clover about equally 
mixed. The large plot, numbered 3, received a dressing of 
50 lbs. of the Stockbridge Fertilizer for grass ; the other 
plots, numbered 1 and 2, were unmanured. One of these 
plots yielded 640 lbs. of grass, or 260 lbs. of hay ; the other, 
697 lbs. of grass, or 274 lbs. of hay. The totals and the 
yield of plot 3 are given in the following table, in pounds : 





Grass. 


Hay. 


Grass 
per acre. 


Hay 

per acre. 


Nos. l and 2. 
No. 3 


1331 

1697 


!i34 
618 


10,712 
13,576 


4,272 
4,944 









The experiment was repeated in 1877, when the unfertil- 
ized plot, of the same size as one of the unfertilized plots of 
the previous year, yielded 765 lbs. of grass, and the plot 
with Stockbridge manure, half as large as the manured plot 
of last year, 1,008 lbs. For shrinkage, when converted into 
hay, see the statement of result of the previous experiment ; 
the grass this year consisted of timothy mixed with a little 
clover. The same per cent, of shrinkage should not be ap- 
plied to clover (II), as it would be far too small. 



E. 



Mcperiments with Mangel -Wurzels. 1879. — The summer 
wasMry and unfavorable, and the crops of all the plots were 
damaged by grasshoppers, that ate off the top in July. The 
amounts of manures and crops refer to the plots. 



95 



Treatment. 



ii lbs. sol. Pacific guano, i lbs. sulphate ammonia, 5 rows, 

No fertilizer- 5 

16}^ lbs. soluble Pacific guano •"< 

No fertilizer 5 " 

16J£ lbs. sulphate of ammonia 5 " 

No fertilizer, Norbitton's Giant. 3 

Yellow Globe 3 " 

1)4 lbs. sol. Pacific guano, 5 lbs. sulphate ammonia, 8 

No fertilizer :j 

12 lbs. soluble Pacific guano - 3 

No fertilizer ... 3 " 



Yield. 

lbs. 

1120 

1260 

1120 

1140 

1260 

into 

880 

1080 

940 

880 

700 



XIV. 

EXPERIMENTS IN CA TTLE-FEEDING. 



By Prof. I. P. Roberts. 



ENSILAGE FOR YOUNG CATTLE AND BEEF COWS. 

Three two-year-old, half-blood Holstein heifers were se- 
lected, which had previously been fed on hay exclusively. 

First period. — The ration consisted of ensilage, 50 lbs., 
and malt sprouts, 0.5 lbs., per day and animal. 

For the composition of these fodders see report of De- 
partment of Agricultural Chemistry. 

All weights were taken at 8 o'clock A. M., after feeding 
but before watering. 



When weighed. 


No. 14. 


No. 16. 


No. 17. 


Total. 


February 24 — 
March 3 

" 10 

" 17 

" 24 


lbs. 

770 
832 
830 
840 

824 


lbs. 

750 
850 
890 
900 

882 


lbs. 
780 
834 
850 
820 
824 


lbs. 

2300 
2516 
2570 
2560 
2530 



The total gain during the twenty-eight days was 230 
pounds, or 2.73 pounds per day and animal. The apparent 
gain of 216 pounds during the first week was largely due, 
without doubt, to an increase in the contents of the stomach. 

If the weight of March 3 is taken, the total gain in the 



— 96 



following three weeks is but 14 lbs., or 0.22 lb. per day and 
animal. It is evident that this was about as near a mainte- 
nance ration as it is possible to get, for while one animal 
gained 32 lbs., the others lost 8 and 10 lbs. respectively. 

Second period. — On March 25 2 lbs. of cotton-seed meal 
was added to the daily ration of each animal. On April 
14 their total weight was 2,072 lbs., a gain in the three weeks 
of 142 lbs., or 2.25 lbs. pel - day and animal. 

This experiment indicates that Southern - corn ensilage 
forms a maintenance ration when fed in suitable quantities, 
and that it is economy to feed it in conjunction with some 
more concentrated food. During the first as well as the 
second period the animals appeared to be making rapid 
growth, yet the scales showed that the weight of two of 
them decreased. 

For several months after being turned out to pasture the 
ensilage-fed animals appeared tar thriftier than others of 
like age ami size which had been wintered on hay. 

Beef Cows. — The cows had been "dry off' 1 about three 
weeks previous to the first weighing ; two were natives aid 
one (No. 10) was a half-blood Holstein ; all had been milked 
for about ten months and were thin in flesh. They were 
offered for sale at three cents per pound, or $99.00, but 
owing t<> the high price of feed no purchaser was found. 
From February 21 to April 5 their ration consisted of 
ensilage 52 lbs., and corn meal 12.5 lbs.; from April 5 till 
sold, ensilage 50 lbs., corn meal 0.4 lbs., and cotton-seed 
meal 2.s lbs.; or in volume-measure in the last case, six 
quarts of corn meal and two quarts of cotton-seed meal. 



When weighed. 


No. lo. 


No. 1,N. 


No. 2,N 


February 21, 1882, 


1150 


111(10 


080 


28, " 


120(1 


1110 


1024 


March 7, " 


1226 


1140 


1007 


14, 


12-12 


1147 


1068 


21, 


1242 


1182 


1070 


April 5, 


1320 


1180 




12, 


1300 


1102 




20, " 


1320 


1150 





They were all sold at $ .o'.i.l per pound, dressed weight. 
The average gain per animal was 2.84 lbs. per day. 



— 97 — 



Gain in Weight by Steers an a Moderate Fattening Ra- 
tion, and on Grass. — 

Three steers, purchased March 4, were weighed daily 
at first, beginning March 13, after they had become ac- 
customed to tfceir new surroundings, and afterwards every 
other day for two months, while fed on the following ration: 
March 13 to 16, ensilage 30 lbs., cut corn-stalks 4 lbs., malt 
sprouts 5 lbs., and corn meal 3 lbs. March 16 to 23, the 
same, except that 2.5 lbs. of bran were substituted for 2.5 
lbs. of malt sprouts. From March 23 on, 1 lb. of cotton-seed 
meal was added to the ration. From March 27, 1 lb. of 
corn meal was replaced by 1 lb. of cotton-seed meal. All 
weights -were taken after eating and before drinking. The 
weights are given in detail to show the frequent wide varia- 
tions from day to day. 



March. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


April. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


13 


604 


650 


620 


l 


744 


701 


699 


14 


678 


638 


638 


3 


741 


099 


699 


15 


680 


659 


630 


5 


762 


715 


704 


16 


087 


037 


644 


7 


780 


722 


720 


17 


089 


650 


643 


8 


7S0 


737 


736 


IS 


725 


664 


650 


10 


750 


710 


72s 


20 


700 


662 


663 


12 


780 


717 


740 


21 


720 


662 


664 


14 


800 


719 


730 


22 


724 


664 


604 


15 


800 


730 


739 


23 


730 


080 


680 


17 


798 


720 


750 


24 


716 


680 


678 


20 


804 


732 


705 


25 


730 


683 


070 


22 


804 


750 


7 so 


27 


720 


085 


680 


24 


822 


750 


776 


28 


7*0 


701 


598 


27 


820 


700 


784 


29 


750 


690 


678 


29 


815 


770 


7 SO 


30 


742 


702 


699 


May l 


825 


764 


7114 


31 


744 


701 


699 





















Gain in 40 days, 131 


314 


174 



The gain in live weight per steer and day was 2.85 lbs., 
or, per 1,000 lbs. live weight at the beginning, 4.3 7 lbs. 

The weights of the animals on July 3, after having been 
in pasture and on grass alone for sixty-three days, were as 
follows : No. 1, 1,038 lbs.; No. 2, 962 lbs.; No. 3, 940 lbs. 
The total gain for sixty-three days was, therefore, 557 lbs., 
or per steer and day, 2.94 lbs., or per 1,000 lbs. live weight, 
4.5 lbs. 



— 9S — 
FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH CROPS. 



Oats, broadcast and drilled seeding compared: 



No. of 
plot. 



Pecks of 

seed 
per acre. 



Yield. 



Experiments of 1880-1. 

Drilled 

Broadcast 

Drilled 

Broadcast 



Average of the 2 years 1878 and 1879. 

Broadcast 

Drilled 



bu. lbs. 
25 10 
35 20 
35 20 
37 16 



CI 16 
56 



0( tts, thick and thin seeding compared : 



Experim'tsof 1880. Soil gravelly and poor 



Experiments of 1881. Soil fair 

Experiments of 1882 

Average of results for 4 years— 1876 to 
1879 



No. of 
plot. 



Pecks of 

seed 
per acre. 



5 

7 and 8 

12 

16 



Yield. 



bu. lbs. 

24 12 
21 3 
18 9 

25 10 

59 11 

61 24 

68 14 
65 16 

57 8 
56 17 

69 19 

58 28 

39 30 

41 25 

42 20 
42 31 



Oats, varieties compared: 



Experiments of 1880. All plots manured 
with mo lbs. superphosphate per acre. 

Batavia 

Mitchell 

University 

University 

Experiments of 1881 

University 

Mitchell 

Batavia 

White Russian 



No. of 
plot. 



Pecks of 

seed 
per acre. 



Yield. 



74 7 

56 19 

64 27 

60 31 



99 



Oats, (.liferent Fertilizers, 1880 



Salt, 300 lbs 

Plaster, 300 lbs 

No fertilizers 

Salt, 300 lbs., and plaster, 300 lbs 

No fertilizers 

Sulphate of ammonia, 300 lbs 

Swif tsure phosphate, 300 lbs 

No fertilizers 

Pacific guano, 300 lbs 

" 300 lbs, and sulphate of ammonia 5 lbs. 
No fertilizers 



Plots 


Yield. 




bu lbs. 


1 


34 22 


2 


31 28 


3 


29 17 


4 


27 1 


5 


28 19 


6 


29 2 


7 


42 21 


8 


37 31 


9 


39 31 


10 


39 28 


11 


35 20 



Summary of results , 



bu. lbs. 



Average yield of all phosphated plots 37 26 

" " unfertilized " 34 2 

" " " phosphated plots, 1878-9 35 2 

" " unfertilized " " 30 1% 

Average yield plastered plots, 1880 31 28 

" " adjoining unfertilized plots, 1880 29 17 

Average of 1878-9, plastered 40 

" " unfertilized 37 19^ 

Average yield of salted plots, 1880 34 22 

" " unmanured plots, 1880 29 17 

Average yield, 1878-9, salted 43 18 

" " " unfertilized 39 7 

The salt and plaster applied to plot 4 appeared to have 
drawn moisture or prevented evaporation. The marked dif- 
ference between this plot and j)lots 3 and 5, two weeks after 
the grain was sowed, led to a careful determination in the 
laboratory of the amount of moisture present in the first 
eight inches of soil. Plot 3 contained 11 per cent, water, 
and plot 4 11.6 per cent. This difference shows that there 
was present in the soil 12,903 lbs. more of water per acre in 
the first eight inches of plot 4 than of plot 3. 

Wheat, broadcast and drilled seeding compared. Summary 
of results for seven years : 



1876 

1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 



Broa 


least. 


Drilled. 


bu. 


lbs. 


bu. lbs. 


22 


30 


24 55 


18 


30 


21 00 


24 


45 


25 30 


22 


00 


24 24 


29 


10 


38 30 


23 


10 


22 30 


34 


38 


44 30 



— 100 



Wheat, thick and thin seeding compared: 





Plots. 


Pecks 

seed per 

acre. 


Yield. 


Experiments of 1881-2. Seed sown Sept. 
5th; variety, Clawson ; fertilizer, jiio 
lbs. superphosphate per acre; land 
poor and clayey, and had produced 
wheat previous year. 

Experiments of 1881-2. Seed sown Sept. 
13th; variety, Clawson; fertilizer, 400 
lbs. superphosphate per acre. 

Summary of results of previous years : 

l year 

4 years 


1 

2 
3 
4 

1 
2 
3 

4 


4 
6 
8 
12 

5 

8 

8 

12 

14 

12 

8 

10 


bu. lbs. 
15 20 
10 10 

22 30 

23 50 

34 33 

35 36 
35 5 
44 5 

20 50 
23 23 

■jii 15 
18 22 
15 25 


2 years, 6 peeks and l year... 



The above experiments are so easily understood that com- 
ment appears unnecessary ; l»ut to the experimenter who 
watches the growing wheat throughout the year many tilings 
are revealed which do not appear in the ascertained yield. 
There is a verj noticeable variation from year to year in the 
per cent, of seed that germinates, and in the amount de- 
stroyed by insects and other enemies before the winter sets 
in. The thin seeding frequently does well until freezing 
and thawing occurs during the last of winter, when it is 
injured far more than thick seeding. 

If every condition lias been favorable up to spring it some- 
limes happens that dry, wind) weather prevails, and the 
thin seeding does not tiller ;ts it should, or tillers so late 
that a large proportion of the heads are low in the standing 
grain, small, and poorly filled, while the heads of the thick 
seeding will be more uniform in size and have less small and* 
shrunken grain. One bushel of seed per acre would be 
ample if all the conditions were at the best ; but they seldom 
are. Therefore it appears wiser to be liberal with the seed 
than to take so many risks. 

Wheat, varieties, Experiments of 1880-1 : 

Farm-yard manure was applied to the surface and har- 
rowed in at the rate of six cords (twelve loads) per acre, and 

2(io lbs. of phosphate per acre was drilled in with the seed. 



101 — 



No injury to the germination of the seed appeared, as the 
ground was quite moist at the time of sowing. 1 



Variety. 



Fultz 

Clawson 

Gold Medal . 
South Wales. 



No. of 
plot. 



Yield per acre 



bu. lbs. 
37 35 
39 25 
41 26 
Total failure. 



In the same field, on laud which was far poorer, drier, 
and more exposed to the wind than was the land on which 
the above varieties were tested, the following experiment 
was made with fertilizers : 



Variety of Wheat. 


Kind of fertilizer. 


No. of 

plot. 


Yield. 




Farm-yard manure as above. 
<> Yard manure as in No. 1 and 200 <> 
I 11 is. of phosphate per acre. S 


1 
2 


bu. lbs. 

22 49J4 
22 00 







Wheat, varieties, Experiments of 1881-2 : 

The ground had produced wheat the previous year, and 
before sowing had received twelve loads of farm-yard ma- 
nure and 200 lbs. of phosphate per acre. The land was 
plowed once, immediately after the previous wheat crop had 
been removed, and was again treated to the same quantity 
and kind of fertilizers as above. Liberal surface cultivation 
was given up to the time of sowing. 



Variety. 



No. of plot. 



Yield. 



Clawson s. 

Fultz s. 

Gold Medal d. 

Washington Gloss d. 

Rice Wheat d. 

Heige's Prolific p.d. 

Finley's s. 

Red Mediterranean s. 

White Michigan s. 



bu. lbs. 

41 68 

47 15 

40 (55 
36 30 

32 91 
45 17 

41 34 
35 87 

33 99 



In another field — having a better wheat soil than the 
above — the following varieties, which were sent by Prof. 
W. R. Lazenby from the Agricultural College of Ohio, were 
tried. The land was treated with a liberal amount of fer- 

1 In these tables, d indicates wheat down ; p. d., partly down ; and s, stands 
up in good order at time of harvesting. 



— 102 



tilizers and put in the best possible condition, but the sow- 
ing was late — September 27. 



Variety. 



No. of plot. 



Yield. 



Velvet Chaff s. 

Theiss d. 

Sandomunke pd. 

Hungarian White Chaff p.d. 

Zimmerman's Amber p.d. 

German Amber p.d. 

Champion s.. 

Russian , No. 2 s. 

York White Chaff 8. 

Rickenbroda. s. 

Silver Chaff p.d. 

Rivets, an English wheat 



bu. lbs. 

38 31 
35 49 

39 53 
38 31 

43 29 
41 40 
45 77 
41 78 
47 99 

44 04 

40 73 
Failure. 



In 1881 the yield of Clawson wheat exceeded that of 
Fultz by 2-g- bushels, while in 1882 the Fultz exceeded that 
of Clawson by 5-p B - bushels. 

Neither Clawson nor Gold Medal appears to respond to 
high manuring as well as the Fultz. This was suspected 
before, and the experiment appears to be confirmatory. 

Gold Medal stood well the first year ; but when the land 
had received another heavy dressing of fertilizers it fell 
down badly, and the yield was less in 1882 than in 1881 by 
forty-seven pounds, although the former year was more 
favorable for wheat than the latter. 

The York White Chaff bids fair to be a valuable variety on 
fertile land, as does also Heige's Prolific, though the latter va- 
riety does not stand up as well as the former, or as the Fultz. 
Wheat, different Fertilizers, 1880-1 : 



Treatment. 



No.of 
Plot. 



Yield. 



Crocker's superphosphate, 400 lbs.* 

No fertilizers 

Swiftsure phosphate, too lbs. 

N i > Cert i I i zers 

Farm-yard manure, 10 loads or 5 cords 

No fertilizers 

Sail, 600 lbs 

Crocker's superphosphate, 200 lbs., sul. ammonia, lOOlbs. 

No fertilizers 

Swiftsure phosphate, 200 lbs 

Crocker's superphosphate, 200 lbs 

No fertilizers 

Pacific guano phosphate, too lbs 

No fertilizer for 6 years, but under continuous wheat 
culture during that time 



bu. lbs. 

26 30 

25 10 

25 20 
14 40 
29 5 
17 20 

22 25 
24 55 

23 40 

23 20 

24 40 
22 50 

26 20 

ir> :;o 



A portion of these plots were flooded for a few days. 



— 103 — 

Wheat, <l{ferent Fertilizers, 1881-2 : 

The crops which preceded the wheat of these experiments 
were the same as in the following set of experiments, p. 104. 
The wheat was drilled September 13, with nine pecks of 
Clawson wheat per acre. 



Treatment. 



No fertilizers 

Phosphate 200 lbs. arid sulpbate of ammonia 100 lbs. 

No fertilizers 

Farm manure, 7 cords or 14 loads 

Phosphate, 200 lbs 

" (seed badly shrunken) 

" " (seed good) 

No fertilizers 

Gypsum (plaster), 200 11)8 

Salt, 200 lbs 



No.of 
plot. 


Yield. 




bU. 11)3 


1 


35 o 


2 


37 33 


3 


35 


4 


37 57 


5 


34 42 


6 


29 28 


7 


34 43 


8 


31 14 


9 


30 35 


10 


26 57 



Comparison of all phosphated plot* with adjoining plots on 

which no fertilizers were used: D u. lbs. 

Average of all phosphated plots, 1881 25 10 

" " adjoining unfertilized plots. 1881 20 44 

Average of all phosphated plots, 1882 35 39 

" " adjoining unfertilized plots, 1S82 33 43 

Average of all phosphated plots for six years 25 45 

" " adjoining unfertilized plots for six years 24 11 

Gain of phosphated plots over unfertilized ones l 34 

The experiments with phosphates have been carried on 
long enough now to establish the fact that when drilled in 
with the wheat they fail to return (on the University farm) 
their first cost in the succeeding wheat crop. As the phos- 
phates used are known by analysis to be of a high standard, 
the fault cannot be attributed to them. As has been said 
before, when the soil lacks moisture the phosphates seriously 
injure germination, and the subsequent benefit may be more 
than offset by the injury done to the seed. The soil appears 
to have a superabundance of lime, which without doubt com- 
bines with the phosphate and renders it to some extent in- 
soluble. It has been noticeable in several instances that the 
phosphates appear to act the second year witli more effect 
than the first ; but this fact can only be established beyond 
a doubt by careful and long-continued experiments. 

It would appear that if the phosphates w r ere broadcasted 
some time before sowing the wheat, the benefits to the first 
crop might be greater. 



— 104 — 



Wheat and different Fertilizers^ 1881-2 : 

The following experiments to test the effect of various 
fertilizers were suggested by Prof. At water. At the time 
they were planned it was expected that they would be per- 
formed in several States. The plots contained ^o of an acre 
each, were 00 rods long and three drill-marks wide ; each 
plot was separated from the others by a vacant space of two 
feet. The crops preceding the wheat were as follows : Clo- 
ver, 1876 ; corn, manured, 1877 ; outs, 1878 ; wheat, manured, 
1879; corn, manured, 1880; oats, 1881. The wheat was 
drilled September 13, at the rate of two bushels per acre; 
the variety was Clawson. The growth was in good order, 
but too dry for seed to germinate rapidly. The fertilizers 
used had the following composition : nitrate of soda, 16 per 
cent, nitrogen ; sulphate of ammonia, 21 per cent, nitrogen ; 
dried blood, 11 per cent, nitrogen ; superphosphate (dissolved 
bone black), 15 per cent, soluble and 16 per cent, total phos- 
phoric acid ; muriate of potash, 50 per cent, potash. 



Kind and quantity of fertilizers used. 



'Nitrate, of soda, 150 lbs 

Superphosphate, :soo lbs 

Muriate of potash, 150 lbs. 

• Nitrate of soda, 150 lbs., superphosphate. 300 lbs 

No fertilizers 

Nitrate of soda, 150 lbs., muriate of potash, 150 lbs 

, Superphosphate, 300 lbs., muriate of potash, 150 lbs 

No fertilizers 

I Superphosphate, 300 lbs., muriate of potash, 160 lbs., 

nitrate of soda, 150 lbs 

] Superphosphate, 300 lbs., muriate of potash, 150 lbs., 

') nitrate of soda. 300 lbs 

| Superphosphate, 300 lbs., muriate of potash, 150 lbs., 
I nitrate of soda, 450 lbs 

Superphosphate, 300 lbs., muriate of potash, 150 lbs 

I Superphosphate, 300 lbs., sulphate of ammonia, 112 % lbs., 

muriate of potash, 150 lbs - 

J Superphosphate, 300 lbs., sulphate of ammonia, 225 lbs.. 

muriate of potash, 150 lbs 

| Superphosphate, 300 lbs., sulphate of ammonia, 325 lbs., 
i muriate of potash, 150 lbs - 

Superphosphate, 300 lbs., muriate of potash, 150 lbs 

f Superphosphate, 300 lbs., dried blood, 225 lbs., muriate of 

potash, 150 lbs 

J Superphosphate, 300 lbs., dried blood, 450 lbs., muriate of 

, potash, 150 lbs 

I Superphosphate, 300 lbs., dried blood, 675 lbs., muriate of 
1 potash, 150 His 

Superphosphate, 300 lbs., muriate of potash, 150 lbs 

No fertilizers 



No.of 

plot. 



1 
2 

3 

4 

N2 

5 

6 

A'3 



9 
6 a 

Id 

11 

12 
66 

13 

14 

15 
6C 

Ni 



Yield. 



bushels. 
28. 
24.66 
2H.5 
26.66 
29.66 
32.66 
20.16 
28.66 

32.33 

29.86 

29.16 
30.00 

29.83 

29.82 

27.16 
34.16 

32.66 

35.66 

38.66 

32.83 
34.00 



— 105 — 

About ten days after sowing the plots were examined, and 
it was evident that the phosphates had seriously injured the 
germination of the wheat, and that where they were used 
alone the damage was greater than where they were used in 
conjunction with nitrate of soda, potash, or dried blood. 
Experiments have frequently shown that in dry soils the 
damage done to the seed by phosphates, when used in lib- 
eral quantities, is very great ; this fact has led us to the 
practice of mixing gypsum with phosphates in about equal 
proportions. The wheat is then drilled with one-half the 
quantity of seed and fertilizers desired, and then re-drilled 
crosswise ; this distributes both seed and fertilizer most ad- 
mirably, and gives with us a marked increase in yield over 
the old method. It will be observed that the plots are 
arranged in groups. From 1 to 6 inclusive is the prelim- 
inary group, from V to 9 inclusive the nitric acid group, 
from 10 to 12 inclusive the ammonia group, from 13 to 15 
inclusive the organic nitrogen group ; and N. 2, N. 3, N. 4 
might be called the non-fertilized group. The average yield 
per acre of the various groups was as follows : Preliminary, 
28.44 bushels ; nitric acid, 30.45 bushels ; ammonia, 28.93 
bushels ; organic - nitrogen, 35.66 bushels ; non- fertilized, 
30.7V bushels. 

Two valuable lessons appear in these experiments : First, 
that concentrated fertilizers — under certain conditions of 
soil — when applied liberally and in direct contact with the 
seed, may do quite as much harm as good ; second, that 
nitrogen, when applied in the form of dried blood, is far 
more effective than when applied in the form of nitrate of 
soda or sulphate of ammonia. 



— 106 — 
XV. 

THE RELATIVE PROPORTION OF NUTRIENTS IN THE 
TOPS AND BUTTS OF CORN-STALKS. 



By Prof. G. C. Caldwell. 



This examination was made at the request of the Onon- 
daga Farmers' Club. Under tops, th,e leaves and the upper 
half of the stalk are included; and under butts, the lower 
half of the stalk stripped of its leaves. The following av- 
erages are calculated from the table on page 107 : 



Moisture 

Ash 

Crude protein ] 
Fat 



Non-nitrogenous extractive matters. 
Filler 



Butts. Tops. 



15.35 
7.00 
6.82 
1.26 
31.33 
37.88 



14.05 

5.91 

6.79 

1.53 

40.5 

30.46 



2.98 



5.31 



1 Containing real albuminoids (Stutzer) ... 

In the smaller proportion of ash and the larger proportion 
of real albuminoids and non-nitrogenous extractive matter 
or carbhydrates, the tops are shown to have a greater value 
than the butts ; if digestion experiments could be performed 
with the two parts of the stalk, a still greater advantage 
would doubtless appear in favor of the tops. The examina- 
tion was suggested by the necessity of cutting the stalks 
and otherwise preparing them, in order to persuade the 
cattle to eat the whole ; and the query was propounded 
whether the nutriment in the butts would pay for such 
labor. Though poorer than the tops, yet they are richer 
than oat straw. 



— 107 — 

XVI. 

MALT SPROUTS COMPARED WITH GRAIN, AND ENSIL- 
AGE COMPARED WITH DRY FEED FOR MILCH COWS. 



By Prof. G. C. Caldwell. 



Two sets of feeding experiments were tried for these pur- 
poses, one with a set of five cows, extending from December 
1, 1881, to May 1, 1882, and the other with a set of three 
cows, extending from March 21 to May 1, 1882. All the 
animals were of native breeds. Each set was fed for at 
least a fortnight on the ration to be tested ; the analysis of 
the milk included every milking during the last six days of 
each period. The ration in pounds per cow and day, the 
so-called digestible nutritive ratio of the ration, the average 
yield of milk in pounds per cow and day during the last six 
days of each period, and the per cent, of solids and fat in 
the mixed milk of all the cows of each set for the same 
period, are given below. The digestibility of the ensilage 
was taken to be the same as that of green fodder corn. 
Set of five cows : 





Nut. 
ratio. 


Yield 

of 
milk. 


Solids 


Fat. 


First period .— 
Second period 
Third period 
Fourth period 

Fifth period.— 
Sixth period.- 


Cornstalks, 9.5 ; clover hay, 9.5 ; 


bran, 


1:7.4 

1:5 

1:8.5 

1:7.1 
1:9.5 
1:3.1 


19.7 
17.4 
1G.7 

15.7 

16 

16.4 


13.3 

13.68 

13.34 

13.45 
13.24 

13.88 


4.02 
4.04 

4.03 
3.71 
4.34 


—Cornstalks, 9.5; clover hay 


9.5; 


— Cornstalks, 8; ensilage, 46; 


malt 


— Cornstalks, 8; clover hay, 
straw, 4 ; malt sprouts, 3 


l; oat 
corn 


Ensilage, 50; malt sprouts, 3; 


corn 


-Cornstalks, 8; clover hay, i 
straw, 4; cottonseed meal. 


; oat 
9 



Set of three cows , 





Nut. 
ratio. 


Yield 

of 
milk. 


Solids 


Fat. 

3.83 

3.95 
3.93 


First period.— Ensilage, 50; malt sprouts, 3; corn 

meal, 2 ; wheat bran, 1 

Second period.— Cornstalks, 8; clover, 4; oat straw, 

4 ; malt sprouts, 3 ; corn meal, 2 ; 

wheat bran, 2 

Third period.— Ensilage, 50; malt sprouts, 3; corn 

meal, 2 ; wheat bran, 2 


1:9.5 

1:7.1 
1:9.5 


15.9 

16.6 
18.6 


12.89 

12.95 
12.96 



— 108 — 

The rations of the first and second periods, with five cows, 
were continued for about a month. In the sixth period with 
the same set of cows such a large proportion of cotton-seed 
meal was substituted for the grain for the special purpose 
of noting the effect on the milk. 

As to the effect of the ensilage on the yield and composi- 
tion of milk, no marked results are exhibited ; in the case 
of the second set of cows there is a notable increase in yield 
in passing from the second to the third period, without any 
falling off or improvement in quality ; but no such result 
is given by the other set ; it may also be observed in favor 
of ensilage that the usual diminution in yield with the con- 
tinuance of lactation is to some extent overcome. More 
than this, the most that appears to be safely established by 
these feeding trials, is that ensilage can be substituted for 
dry feed of good quality without danger of any notable 
change in respect to the milk. 

The comparatively slight changes in the yield and char- 
acter of the milk, with the wide changes in the nutritive 
ratio, o)- the proportion of albuminoids to other digestible 
matters in the ration, is a very noticeable result of these 
trials ; it appears to he indicated thereby either that this 
nutritive ratio is of less importance than it is commonly 
taken to be, or that the very commonly adopted period of 
two weeks on each ration in feeding trials is not long enough 
for the ration to produce its effect. This latter point will 
be made the subject of a special inquiry in some future ex- 
periments. 

In December, 1881, Prof. Cook, of New Jersey, 1 set apart 
four cows from the herd of the college farm, for a test of 
the feeding qualities of ensilage for milk. Each ration was 
continued for twenty days, and the milk of the last five 
days of each period was analyzed. The rations in pounds 
per day, and 1,000 lbs. live weight, and yield of milk per 
cow per day, and composition of the milk are given below 
in the same manner as in the previous table. 

1 Report of New Jersey Experiment Station for 1882. 



\ 



— 109 



Set 1, two cows : 



First period. — Dried fodder corn, 20; wheat bran, 
3 ; brewer's grains, 30 

Second period.— Same as ihst 

T hirdperiod. — Ensilage, 50; wheat bran, 3: brew- 
er's grains, 30 



Nut. 
ratio. 



1:5.1 
1:5.1 



Yield 

of 
milk. 



29.1 

28.8 



Solids 



13.55 
13.65 



Fat. 



4.27 
4.49 



Set 2, two cows : 





Nut. 
ratio. 


Yield 

of 
mi lie. 


Solids 


Fat. 


First period.— Dried fodder corn, 20; wheat bran, 

3 : brewer's grains, 30 

Second period.— Ensilage, 50 ; wheat bran, 3; brew- 


1:5.1 

1:5 
1:5 


173 

is..". 
17.3 

23.2 

•22.1 


L3.87 

14.01 
14.51 

13.71 

14.09 


4.27 

4.42 
4.53 

4.27 


Averages for the four cows fed on fodder coin. 
bran and brewer's grains, in the first period. . 

Averages for the four cows fed on ensilage, bran 





The effect of ensilage on either yield or quality of milk 
in these experiments also is not marked, whatever change 
there is being in the direction of the natural alteration that 
takes place with continuance of lactation. 



{ 



\ 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

Department of agriculture. 



F.A.OTTILjT'Y' : 

Charles Kendall Adams, LL. D., 

President. 

George Chapman Caldwell, B. S., Ph. D., 

Professor of Agricultural and Analytical Chemistry. 

Burt Green Wilder, B. S., M. D., 

Professor of Physiology, Comparative A natomy and Zoology. 

James Law, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery. 

Albert Nelson Prentiss, M. S., 

Professor of Botany, Horticulture and Arboriculture. 

Charles Ashmead Schaeffer, A. M., Ph. D., 

Professor of General and Analytical Chemistry and of Mineralogy. 

Isaac Phillips -Roberts, M. Agr., 

Professor of Agriculture. 

John Henry Comstock, B. S., 
Professor of Entomology and of General Invertebrate Zoology. 

William Russell Dudley, M. S., 

Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany. 

Henry Shaler Williams, Ph. D., 

Professor of Geology and Palaeontology. 

Simon Henry Gage, B. S., 

Assistant Professor of Physiology and Lecturer on Microscopical Technology, 



Spencer Baird Newbury, E. M., Ph. D., 

Acting Professor of Organic and Applied Chemistry. 

L. B. Arnold, 

Non-resident Lecturer on the Dairy. 

Frank Howard Morgan, B. S., 

Instructor in Quantitative Analytical Chemistry. 

Eugene Henry Preswick, B. S., 

Instructor in Qualitative Analytical Chemistry. 

Elbert William Rockwood, B. S., 

Instructor in General Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Ass 

Charles Smith Prosser, M. S., 

Instructor in Paleontology. 

James F. Kemp, Ph. D., 

Instructor in Geology. 

Sydney Smith Twombly, B. S., 

Experimental Analyst. 

Stephen Henry Crossman, 

Experimental Assistant. 

George W. Tailby. 

Foreman on the Farm. 

Robert Shore, 

I lead Gardener and Florist. 



< 



\ 



I. 

MATERIAL EQUIPMENT. 



The University Farm, including the campus, consists of 
257 acres of land, the larger part of which is used for ex- 
perimental purposes and the illustration of the principles of 
agriculture. Nearly all the domestic animals are kept to 
serve the same ends. Those portions of the farm and stock 
not used for experiments are managed with a view to their 
greatest productiveness. Statistics of both experiments and 
management are kept on such a system as to show at the 
close of each year the profit or loss not only of the whole 
farm but of each crop and group of animals. 

The Barns are two in number. The south barn is devoted 
to the needs of the horticultural department, and also 
furnishes accommodations for the sheep and young cattle. 
The north barn is used for experimental purposes and 
the general needs of the farm. The large basement con- 
tains a covered yard and accommodations for the dairy 
cows, thirty in number, besides a cellar for the roots, and 
places for the cattle scales, the boiler and the engine. In 
the first story is a large floor into which wagons loaded with 
all kinds of farm produce may drive, and there be unloaded 
by horse power, the barn being provided with the most ap- 
proved apparatus for this purpose. The floor also provides 
accommodations for a large number of farm wagons and 
carriages, hand tools, farm implements aud threshed grain, 
besides containing the office and room for washing carriages. 
The second story contains the stationary thresher, chaffer, 
grain, straw and hay, and a sleeping room for workmen. In 
the wins; attached to the main barn both common and box 
stalls are provided for twenty horses. 



< 



The Dairy House, not far from the main barn, is a two- 
story wooden building sufficiently capacious for all the pur- 
poses of making butter and cheese. The floor of the lower 
story is of small stones covered with cement. The outside 
walls of the building are of two thicknesses of boards and 
three of heavy paper, so arranged as to form four air spaces. 
The equipment of the building comprises a boiler, an engine, 
two creamers (a Cooley and a, Ferguson), and other modern 
appliances for the manufacture of batter and cheese. The 
work done by students in dairy husbandry is under the di- 
rect supervision of Professor L. B. Arnold, and proceeds 
simultaneously with the yearly lectures given by lam. The 
plant is used almost exclusively for purposes of investiga- 
tion, and not for commercial purposes. 

Museums, Reading Room, a ml Special Laboratory. — Seven 
huge rooms in Morrill Hall are set apart for the exclusive use 
of the department of agriculture. The lecture-room is 
furnished with suitable maps, charts, drawings, etc., and a 
viscometer. The reading-room has on tile all the leading 
agricultural journals, and the books bearing directly upon 
the subjects taught are here made more accessible than they 
would be in the general library. The large museum ad- 
joining contains among other things the Rau models (the 
collection consisting of 187 models of plows made at the 
Royal Agricultural College of Wurtemberg), 250 varieties 
of wheat, and a large number of models representing a great 
variety of agricultural implements. In the lower story one 
room is devoted to foreign and one to American implements. 
Another room is fitted up for a workshop and contains cases 
of all hand tools used in agriculture. During inclement 
weather students are here taught the use of the hammer, 
the saw, the plane, etc., by making gates, repairing im- % 

plemeuts and the like. Another room is furnished with ^ 

power and contains the larger kinds of farm machinery. A 
self-binder is taken apart and put together twice yearly by 
the class, and each student is required to become familiar 
with the machines by using them and the engine which 
drives them. 



Hie General Laboratories of the University in all depart- 
ments related to agriculture are freely open to agricultural 
students. The laboratories in which special attention is 
paid to studies in agriculture are those of botany, chemistry 
entomology, zoology, microscopy, anatomy, and geology! 
Each of these is fully equipped with the best appliances for 
modern scientific research, and each one is under the charge 
of an eminent specialist. 

A Large Conservatory in connection with the department 
of botany is conducted with special reference to the needs 
of students, and furnishes an ample supply of botanical ma- 
terial throughout the year. 

The Agricultural Library embraces some six thousand 
volumes on agricultural subjects, including veterinary sci- 
ence, and- comprises the best works of both European and 
American writers. 

As above mentioned, the works most frequently used are 
made constantly accessible by being placed in the agricult- 
ural reading room..; The remainder are kept with the gen- 
eral library, which is at all times open to students 



II. 

COURSES OF STUDY IN AGRICULTURE. 



A. 

The complete course in Agriculture, leading to the degree 
of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture. 

freshman Tear. 1st Term. 2 d Term. 3d Term 

Mathematics 5 5 * 

French or German 5 5 

English. 2 ........ 2 " 9 

Freehand drawing 3 3 



Sophomore Year. 1st Term. 2d Term. 3d Term. 

English 1 1 1 

Physics. 3 3 3 

Invertebrate zool. 3 Vertebrate zool. 3 Botany' 3 

Physiology 3 Psychology 2 Logic :-i 

Microscopy 3 3 3 

Chemistry 3 3 

13 15 16 

Military drill 2 Physical train'g 2 Military drill 2 

Electives 2-5 3 

Junior Year. 1st Term. 2d Term. 3d Term. 

Themes 2 2 2 

The remaining work of the junior year, and all the work 
of the senior year, is elective, with the provision that at 
least twelve hours must be devoted continuously to studies 
specially relating to agriculture or horticulture, a list of 
which is given below (the studies being arranged somewhat 
in the general order in which they should be taken): 

Agricultural chemistry : lectures ; laboratory work in 
qualitative and quantitative analysis. 

Botany: composite and gramineae ; arboriculture and 
landscape gardening ; vegetable physiology, vegetable his- 
tology ; fungi and alga', and systematic and applied botany. 

Geology, economic: lectures. 

Entomology : lectures and laboratory practice. 

Horticulture: lectures and field work. 

Veterinary studies : anatomy and physiology, pathology, 
sanitary science, parasites, medicine and surgery. 

Agriculture : lectures and held work. 

Land surveying. 

This course, it will be seen, is intended not only to give 
the student that practical knowledge of the science of agri- 
culture which will fit him to become a successful farmer, 
but also to furnish such general scientific and literary cult- 
ure, combined with technical training in agriculture, as will 
qualify the student to fill successfully any position as a 
teacher of agriculture, writer upon agricultural journals, or 



( 



i 



superintendent of large operations that he may he called 
upon to fill. A large number who have taken this complete 
course are now filling positions of this kind. Of Cornell 
graduates now exerting an influence for the advancement of 
agricultural knowledge in this country there may be men- 
tioned, in illustration, Mr. Lazenby, Professor of Horticult- 
ure in the Ohio State University, and Director of the State 
Experiment Station ; Mr. Holmes, Professor in the Univer- 
sity of North Carolina ; Mi-. Wing, Professor of Agriculture 
in the Nebraska State University ; Mr. Comstock, Professor 
of Entomology in Cornell University, formerly United States 
Entomologist ; Mr. Henry, Professor of Agriculture in Wis- 
consin University ; Mr. Trelease, of the Shaw School of Bot- 
any, author of many well-known works on the fertilization 
of flowers and upon parasitic fungi ; Mr. Salmon, United 
States Veterinarian ; Mr. Smith, assistant to the U. S. Vet- 
erinarian ; Mr. Howard, first assistant to the U. S. Entomol- 
ogist ; Mr. Aubert, Professor in the Maine State Agricult- 
ural College ; Mr. H. W. Smith, Professor in the Agricult- 
ural School at Truro, Halifax ; and Mr. Atkinson, Professor 
in the University of North Carolina. 

B. 

Special course in Agriculture, not leading to a degree. 

There are a large number of farmers' sons who would be 
glad to spend one or two years at the University pursuing 
studies in applied agriculture, of whom the four years' course 
demands too much in the way of preparation, as well as of 
time and expense. To accommodate this class a sj)ecial 
course has been provided, the only requirements of which 
are that students must possess a fair knowledge of English, 
and must select at least three-fourths of their studies from 
the list of elective studies in agriculture, given above. This 
enables the student even in one year to attend the courses 
of lectures given by the Professor of Agriculture, the Pro- 
fessor of Veterinary Science, and the Professor of Agricult- 



ural Chemistry, and thus affords him a systematic and prac- 
tical knowledge of those branches that will be of most 
service to him. Special students, during the time they are 
in the University, enjoy equal advantages in all respects 
with students studying for a degree. 



III. 






GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COURSES— IN FOR- 
MA TION. 



Students in the four years' course are presumed at the 
time of their admission to be fairly familiar with all of the 
rudimentary operations of the farm. If they are not, they 
can acquire this knowledge and practice either at the Uni- 
versity farm or under the eye of some good farmer during 
their first summer vacation. 

All students are required to work five hours each week 
for one year, under the direct supervision of the Professor 
of Agriculture, in the farm workshop, in the barns, or in 
the fields. Nearly as much more time is spent by them in 
the fields and barns, under the Professors of Veterinary Sci- 
ence, Botany and Horticulture, Geology and Entomology. 
Students receive no pay for this or any other educational 
work. The field-work supplements the lectures and recita- 
tions, in order that the application and value of the princi- 
ples taught may be thoroughly understood and remembered 
by the student. 

In applied agriculture, lectures and recitations are given 
daily throughout one year ; a like amount of time is given 
to veterinary science and also to botany and horticulture. 
Three lectures each week for two terms, with laboratory 
practice, are given in entomology. Much time is devoted 
to agricultural chemistry and geology, and the teaching is 
with special reference to their application to agriculture. 



( , 






Visits are made from time to time to the best farms and 
herds m New York and Canada, in order that the students 
may have opportunities for a wide range of study and com- 
parison and may come into direct contact and relations 
with the best class of farmers. These visits give the stu- 
dents the best of opportunities for studying the results of 
science- and practice combined. 

For the benefit of both teacher and student many experi- 
ments are entered into. The results of some of these inves- 
tigations have been given to the public in published reports 
Specific information in regard to all matters connected with 
the University is given in the Register, which will be sent 
free on application to Mr. E. L. William*, Treasurer of the 
U niversity. 



IV. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION. 



For admission to the course leading to a degree, students 
must be at least sixteen years of age, and they" are required 
to pass an examination in arithmetic, geography, grammar 
elementary algebra, plane geometry and physiology Re- 
gents diplomas and pass cards, and certificates from ap- 
proved high schools and academies, are accepted in place of 
these. For admission to the special course not, leading to 
a degree students must be at least eighteen years of age and 
must satisfy the Professor of Agriculture of their ability to 
carry on the work with profit. 

Full instructions on this head will be found in the Uni- 
versity Register. 



V. 

TUITION FEES. 



To all students of agriculture tuition is gratuitous. 



<- 






Cornell University. 



The following statement of Courses of Instruction is taken from 
the latest, official announcement of the University : 

I. TECHNICAL COURSES. 

i Applied Agriculture Six Courses. 

Agricultural Chemistry Nine Courses. 

Botany and Horticulture Twenty-two Courses. 

Agrk ulture, -I Entomology Nine Courses. 

Physiology and Zoology Fourteen Courses. 

Veterinary Science Three Courses. 

j Surveying One Course. 

Architecture Twenty-six Courses. 

Civil Engineering .Thirty-three Courses. 

Mechanical Engineering Nineteen Courses. 

Physics and Electrical Engineering Sixteen Courses. 

The Science and Art of Teaching Eight Courses. 

II. GENERAL COURSES. 

Greek Thirty-nine Courses. 

Latix.* Thirty-six Courses. 

Comparative Philology One Course. 

G-ermanic Languages Twenty-five Courses. 

Romance Languages Twenty-four Courses. 

English, Rhetoric, and Oratory Thirty Courses. 

Philosophy . . Seventeen Courses. 

History and Political Science Forty-one Courses. 

Bibliography One Course. 

Mathematics and Astronomy Sixty-six Courses. 

Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. .. .Thirty-nine Courses. 

Geology and Pai.eontology Thirteen Courses. 

Military Science and Tactics One Course. 

For fuller information, see fourth page of cover. 

For the Register, containing a complete description of the Univer- 
sity, apply to 

m TREASURER OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 

ITHACA, N. Y. 



CORNELL 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 080 570 7 

UNIVERSITY. 



SPECIAL FEATURES. 



For those who desire to lit, themselves for teaching, 
Cornell University offers special facilities. Professor S. 
G. Williams, Ph. 1)., Professor of the Science and the 
Art of Teaching, lectures throughout the year, treating 
of the Science of Education, School Instruction, the 
lization and Management of Schools, Supervision, 
School Buildings and Appliances, Hygiene, School Econ- 
A seminary for the discussion of questions 
presented by the lectures is also conducted throughout 
the v^ar. "A SPECIAL^CEKTIFICATE IX PEDA- 
GOGY is given to graduates of the University who have 
completed these courses. 



Medical Pre- 
paratory 
Course. 



To those who desire to become physicians, the Two 
Years' Course Preparatory to the Study of Medicine 
offers special advantages. Instruction is given in Chem- 
istry, Physiology, Anatomy, Microscopy, Botany. Vet- 
erinary Science, "Zoology, etc. A SPECIAL DIPLOMA 
is conferred on the completion of the course. 



Law. 



A Law Department will be opened in September, 1887 

The University possesses a Law Library numbering 

some 5,000 volumes. The course will be complete and 

the instruction of the best, and the expense 

moderate. 



Summer 



Course. 



Agriculture. 



A SUMMER COURSE IN ENTOMOLOGY begins 
the Monday following Commencement, and extend.-* over 
ten weeks. The chief object of the course is to give 
training in methods of natural history work. 



Special students in Agriculture are received without 

examination, on condition that they are at least eighteen 
of age, and satisfy the Professor of Agriculture of 
their ability to profit by the instruction afforded. Tuition 
is Free to all such Students. 



Special 



Special Students are receive,] at any time, vvithoul ex- 
amination to prosecute such studies as they desire. Such 
students, excepting those in Agriculture, must be at 
least twenty-one years of age, and must, be recommended 
to the Faculty by the head of the department in which 
they desire to work. 



iate 

Study. 



Special facilities are afforded for college graduates de- 
siring to pursue advanced studies. To all such students' 
tuition is FREE. 



For further information, see second and third pages of the cover. 

The University Register, containing a full description of the vari- 
ous courses, terms of admission, cost of residence, etc., is sent free 
on application to 

THE TREASURER of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



